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The document discusses artificial neural networks (ANNs). It describes ANNs as being inspired by how the brain processes information, composed of interconnected processing elements that work like neurons to solve problems. ANNs learn by example through a learning process that configures their pattern recognition and data classification abilities.
The document discusses artificial neural networks (ANNs). It describes ANNs as being inspired by how the brain processes information, composed of interconnected processing elements that work like neurons to solve problems. ANNs learn by example through a learning process that configures their pattern recognition and data classification abilities.
The document discusses artificial neural networks (ANNs). It describes ANNs as being inspired by how the brain processes information, composed of interconnected processing elements that work like neurons to solve problems. ANNs learn by example through a learning process that configures their pattern recognition and data classification abilities.
This development is coined as connectionism or more famously as Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
7/11/2014 neurobiological modelling artificial intelligence Machines performing cognitive functions are now built according to HOW brain are performing cognitive functions (simulated brain regions) Definition of Neural Networks (given by Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 1998)
a system composed of many simple processing elements operating in parallel whose functions is determined by network structures, connection strengths and the processing performed at the computing elements or nodes 1 .
NN architectures are inspired by the architecture of biological nervous systems, which use many simple processing elements operating in parallel to obtain high computation rates. 1 nodes are functional units in NN also referred to as units, cells and populations. It is population of neurons that are unified and have functional sense ; see light, hunger Historical Overview McCulloch and Pitts (1943): first neural network model; linear threshold law
Hebb (1949): proposed a mechanism for learning; learning law
Rosenblatt (1958): Perceptron network and the associated learning rule
Widrow & Hoff (1960): a new learning algorithm for linear neural networks (ADALINE)
Minsky and Papert (1969): widely influential book about the limitations of single-layer perceptrons, causing the research on NNs mostly to come to an end. 7/11/2014 Anderson, Kohonen (1972): Use of ANNs as associative memory
Grossberg (1980): Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART)
Hopfield (1982): Hopfield Network
Kohonen (1982): Self-organizing maps (SOM)
Rumelhart and McClelland (1982): Backpropagation algorithm for training multilayer feed-forward networks ...
7/11/2014 Neuron Model 7/11/2014 or (abbreviated notation version) scalar input, p scalar weight, w bias or offset, b summer output or net input, n transfer function or activation function, f scalar neuron output, a 7/11/2014 relations to the biological neuron ; weight, w corresponds to the strength of a synapse summation and transfer function are the cell body neuron output, a is the signal on the axon
neuron output can be calculated e.g.: w = 3, p = 2 and b = -1.5 then
a = f(3(2) (1.5) = f(4.5)
the actual output really depends on the transfer function
individual inputs p 1 , p 2 , ...p R are weighted by corresponding elements w 1,1 , w 1,2 , ...w 1,R of the weight matrix, W
n is a summation of the weighted inputs and b n = w 1,1 p 1 + w 1,2 p 2 + w 1,R p R + b
in matrix form : n = W p + b
7/11/2014
Table of Transfer Functions 7/11/2014 7/11/2014 Classification of ANNs ANN can be classified in a number of ways. Here we will look at two classification according to their :
A) Network architecture
i. Feed forward networks ii. Recurrent networks iii. Competitive networks
B) Mode of learning
i. Supervised learning ii. Unsupervised learning iii. Reinforcement learning 7/11/2014 7/11/2014 Input units Hidden units Output unit Feed forward networks 7/11/2014 Feedback Recurrent Networks 7/11/2014 Supervised Learning
Supervised training or learning requires training data that contains both the network inputs and the associated outputs.
This means that to use this type of training one must have a set of training inputs for which the outputs are known. Once this type of network performs satisfactorily on the training examples, it can be used with inputs for which the correct outputs are not known.
7/11/2014 7/11/2014 Unsupervised learning
Unsupervised learning techniques use only input data and attempt through self organisation to divide the examples presented to the network inputs up into categories or groups with similar characteristics.
Unsupervised learning can act as a type of discovery process identifying significant features in the input patterns presented to it.
7/11/2014 Reinforcement learning
Similar to supervised learning. Instead being provided with the correct output for each network input, the algorithm is given a grade, which is a measure of the network performance over some sequence of inputs. Less common than supervised learning.
Principles of ANN Any major cognitive process or ANN to be analyzed should be organized into subprocesses and subnetworks
Principles of ANN are used in analyzing cognitive process into subprocess;
1) ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING 2) COMPETITION 3) OPPONENT PROCESSING 7/11/2014 Two examples of analyzing cognitive process into subprocess;
1) CATEGORIZATION
2) ATTENTIONAL MODULATION OF CONDITIONING
7/11/2014 Categorization For example, matching a handwritten character to a known letter of the alphabet.
The process: two units need to be included in the network 7/11/2014 responds to the presence or abscence of writing at particular location responds to the patterns of feature nodes activation representing particular letters Feature nodes Category nodes The connection between these two units should be allowed to change over time as a result of repeated activation of the connection principle of associative learning
If it was hard-wired, non-Roman characters cannot be identified, such as Russian and Chinese characters Categorization cont Another principle that could be applied in this example is the competition principle, for example recognizing E (sloppy handwriting) as E or F
The process: the same two units are applied in the network
the feature nodes are activated to a varying degree by the incoming input
via internode connections, the categorization nodes are then activated
if both nodes E and F are activated, the system will choose the greater activation of the two.
7/11/2014 Attentional Modulation of Conditioning
Suppose that a neutral stimuli such as the sound of the bell is associated with food; such with the Pavlovian dog.
How does an animal learn to pay more attention to the bell than to other neutral stimuli in its environment?
The ANN principle of competition. Different nodes exerts sensory stimuli then the bell node should win the competition.
WHY?
Principle of associative learning. Prior association between bell & food. Repeated pairing of the stimuli strengthen the pathways. 7/11/2014 Opponent Processing Principle Discovered by Grossberg & co-workers.
Neural architectures are organized into pairs of pathways of opposite significance; light & dark reward & punishment
It works in a manner that, with a sudden decrease in one pathway, this activates the opposing pathway
All these principles are being suggested by a heterogeneous database that is partly physiological and partly psycological. 7/11/2014 The concept of representation is to model a small part of a cognitive process at a time
A complete model of how particular sensory event are transformed into particular movement sequences depend on concatenation of several networks
7/11/2014 One network to transform raw (visual/auditory) data Another to associate data with co-occuring (visual/auditory) data Another network to classify these Subnetworks or larger networks with ANN principles can be re-use in other models, the connections can be added or reduced. Hence, these can be considered as the ANN modelers toolkit
NN theory addresses complex problems, no single model has cracked the problem of categorization/attention/memory. 7/11/2014
McCullohPitts Network (1943)
Based on a network of simple units, referred to as linear threshold units
Meant only to capture the essential workings of the biological neuron.
Also known as the all-or-none or 0-or-1 network
Boolean operators such as AND and OR is represented by these units
A neuron can be embedded into a network to fire selectively in respons to any given spatiotemporal array of firing of other neurons in the network 7/11/2014 McCullohPitts Networks Rules Rules governing the excitatory and inhibitory pathways of the M-P Network
1. All computations are carried out in discreet time intervals
2. Linear threshold law : Each neuron will fire whenever a given threshold number of excitatory pathways and no inhibitory pathways impinging on it are active from the previous time period (Rosenblatt 1962)
3. If a neuron receives a single inhibitory signal from an active neuron, it does not fire
4. The connections does not change from a function of experience. Thus the network deals with performance but not learning.
7/11/2014 Example 1
A cold object help to the skin and then removed quickly,causes a sensation of heat
In this example, each cell has a threshold of two, hence it will fire when it receives two excitatory (+) and NO inhibitory (-) signal from cells active at the previous time
7/11/2014 Example 1 7/11/2014 Cell 1 A Cell 4 Cell 3 B Cell 2 Heat receptor Cold receptor Heat Cold At T0 : threshold number :2 Example 1 7/11/2014 Cell 1 A Cell 4 Cell 3 B Cell 2 Heat receptor Cold receptor Heat Cold + + + - At T1 : Example 1 At T2 : 7/11/2014 Cell 1 A Cell 4 Cell 3 B Cell 2 Heat receptor Cold receptor Heat Cold + + + Example 1 At T3 : 7/11/2014 Cell 1 A Cell 4 Cell 3 B Cell 2 Heat receptor Cold receptor Heat Cold +
+ What happens when the cold object is being held continuosly?
Lets look at the next example. 7/11/2014 Example 2 7/11/2014 Cell 1 A Cell 4 Cell 3 B Cell 2 Heat receptor Cold receptor Heat Cold + + + - At T1 : Example 2 7/11/2014 At T2 : Cell 1 A Cell 4 Cell 3 B Cell 2 Heat receptor Cold receptor Heat Cold + + + - + + + Example 2 7/11/2014 At T3 : Cell 1 A Cell 4 Cell 3 B Cell 2 Heat receptor Cold receptor Heat Cold + + + - + + + Modern connectionist network contains 3 types of units (nodes), which are being called using different terms in texts but are actually referring to the same unit -
Input units Output units Hidden units Mc Culloh Pits Network Cells 1 & 2 Cells 3 & 4 Cell A & B Rosenblatts perceptron (1962) Sensory Response Associative Units Trilogy Sensory neuron Motor neurons Inter neurons (other neurons) 7/11/2014 This networks models psychological effects such as :
Relief motor act becoming rewarding when it turns off an unpleasant stimulus
Frustration withholding of an expected reward being unpleasant
Partial reinforcement acquisition effect reward value of food being enhanced if the food is unexpected
7/11/2014 McCulloch and Pitts Networks also confront the question of how memory is stored
The mechanism for such memory storage is a reverberatory circuit
This concept remains the central of understanding of memory
7/11/2014 Example A M-P Network models a neuron firing when an input (light) is given three times in a row
7/11/2014 1 B A 2 + + + + + + + + + A B Network A: Each neuron has threshold 3 Network B: shows neuron 2 (threshold two) is made to fire if the light has on been at any time in the past. The mechanism is a reverberatory circuit.
1 2 + + This network has an absence of precise timing but still useful in exhibiting the pathways.
7/11/2014 Psychologists were considering the mechanistic frameworks for studying and learning. How do we study and learn?
7/11/2014 which then led to Can Short-Term-Memory (STM) be distinguished from Long-Term-Memory (LTM)? Classical conditioning 7/11/2014 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) studying the mechanisms underlying the digestive system in mammals Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 realizes dogs were salivating without the presence of food Hull (1943) Using the Pavlovs dog example
The experiment is about bell-food association
When the bell stops, the dog will start to concentrate on other things because the conscious memory is gone
But the memory still remains, because the next time the bell rings the dog will salivate quickly 7/11/2014 From the Pavlovs dog experiment, Hull distinguished two sets of traces : 7/11/2014 Stimulus traces Refers to amounts of activity of particular nodes or functional units in an ANN Subject to rapid decay Associative strengths (habit strengths) Refers to connections between nodes Persists over a longer period of time Connection strengths change with experience and corresponds to variable related to the synapse or junction between neurons Hebb (1949) Memory mechanism, reverberatory feedback loops, suggested by McCulloh and Pitts (1943) could be useful for STM
For LTM, this mechanism would be too unstable, for LTM depends on structural change
But repeatedly, this mechanism may provide the structural change for LTM 7/11/2014 "When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth processes or metabolic changes take place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency as one of the cells firing B, is increased".
If one cell repeatedly fires another, the knobs of the synapse between the cells could grow as to increase the area of contact.
7/11/2014 Before repeated firing After repeated firing Hebbian Learning Rule In other words, in a neural net, the connections between neurons get larger weights if they are repeatedly used during training.
Neurons that fires together grows together 7/11/2014
Rosenblatts Perceptron (1962) Another ANN model which is considered influential and has anticipated many themes of adaptive methods, such as the multilayer perceptrons of Rumelhart & McClelland, 1986.
Main function : to make and learn choices between different patterns of sensory stimuli
Perceptrons = networks of sensory (S), associative (A) and response (R) units, with various structures of active connection betweens units. 7/11/2014 Connection Structure Types Three-layer- series-coupled Multilayer series- coupled Cross-coupled Back-coupled
7/11/2014 S A R S A R S A R S A R Connections from S to one level of A to another level of A to R Similar to the first structure, with the addition of cross links between A units Similar to series coupled with the addition of feedback links from R to A units One way connection from S to A to R Experiments with perceptrons A major Rosenblatts experiment,
S-units are arranged in a rectangular unit. Connections from S- to A-units are random, whereas all A-units connect to the single R-unit.
The perceptron (series-coupled) was taught to discriminate vertical from horizontal bars. If ALL possible vertical and horizontal bars are presented to the elementary series-coupled perceptron, positively reinforced for vertical bars and negatively for horizontal bars, the network will give the desired response.
If only SOME of the bars are reinforced, the series-coupled perceptron are unable to generalize its behaviour to other bars that have not been reinforced.
7/11/2014 Experiments with perceptrons cont 7/11/2014 Schematic of a simplified form of one of Rosenblatts experiment. S consists of 20x20 grid. Each unit A receives 5 excitatory and 1 inhibitory inputs from random S units. Experiments with perceptrons cont 2 This is a weakness of the series-coupled perceptrons, inability to separate out parts (features) of a complex pattern. It needs an excessively large number of nodes for perceptrons to perform categorizations. These system also relies on a reinforcement signal external to the perceptron
Generalizations can be improved by; adding connections to the perceptrons, interposing extra layers of associative units or by cross-coupling existing associative units.
Added connections, removes perceptron dependence on external reinforcement
7/11/2014 Perceptrons First neural network with the ability to learn Made up of only input neurons and output neurons Input neurons typically have two states: ON and OFF Output neurons use a simple threshold activation function In basic form, can only solve linear problems Limited applications 7/11/2014 How Do Perceptrons Learn? Uses supervised training If the output is not correct, the weights are adjusted according to the formula: 7/11/2014 7/11/2014 Network architecture Feed forward network 60 input (one for each frequency bin) 6 hidden 2 output (0-1 for Elephant, 1-0 for Grey mouse)
Presenting the data Elephant Grey mouse Presenting the data (untrained network) Elephant Grey mouse 0.43 0.26 0.73 0.55 Calculate error Elephant Grey mous e 0.43 0 = 0.43 0.26 1 = 0.74 0.73 1 = 0.27 0.55 0 = 0.55 Backprop error and adjust weights
Most common neural network An extension of the perceptron Multiple layers The addition of one or more hidden layers in between the input and output layers Activation function is not simply a threshold Usually a sigmoid function A general function approximator Not limited to linear problems Information flows in one direction The outputs of one layer act as inputs to the next layer Grossberg (1976) Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART)
An unsupervised ANN in the sense that it establishes clusters without external interference
Designed to overcome the stability-plasticity dilemma : how to achieve stability without rigidity and plasticity without chaos?
7/11/2014 7/11/2014 Biological Realism How close should we mimic the structure of the biological systems?
In knowledge processing, the existence of emotions are helpful in making decisions. (Damasio, 1994)
Do we want to emulate human emotional conflict in intelligent machines?
Many irrational common decision-making tendecies may be a by-product of a system designed for effective (if not optimal) real time processing of a complex informational environment (Grossberg & Gutowski,1987)
7/11/2014 Biological Realism cont Proceed designing with the degree of biological realism focusing on the requirements of the problem need solving.
To appreciate the capabilities of the human brain it is important to understand the neuroscience and the experimental phsycology. 7/11/2014 Thus, And, ANNs Applications ANNs are best at identifying patterns or trends in data, they are well suited for prediction or forecasting needs
Specific paradigms;
- recognition of speakers in communications - diagnosis of hepatitis - recovery of telecommunications from faulty software - interpretation of multimeaning Chinese words - undersea mine detection - texture analysis - three-dimensional object recognition - hand-written word recognition - facial recognition 7/11/2014 And so that concludes the Introduction and Historical Outline of Artificial Neural Network.
Thank you! 7/11/2014 Useful Links Introduction to Neural and Cognitive Modeling, Daniel S. Levine, 2 nd Edition, 2000 ISBN:0-80582005-1 http://cialab.ee.washington.edu/index_files/Page598.html http://www.tek271.com/articles/neuralNet/IntoToNeuralNets.ht ml http://www.comp.nus.edu.sg/~pris/ArtificialNeuralNetworks/ http://ece.colorado.edu/~ecen4831/demuth.html