100 300 200 400 500

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Excellent
speech
quality
Acceptable
speech
quality
8
Not acceptable
speech quality
P
a
c
k
e
t

L
o
s
s

%
ms
Delay
Demands on speech quality
(ITU-T G.114)
Application Signal Delay
Mobile Telephony 60 msec
VoIP 50 150 msec
Satellite 250 300 msec
VoIP over Satellite 300 msec
Signal Delay for some
applications
Situation ...occurs... Effect
Reflection of the signal
on listeners side
Delay
> 50 msec
Echo
Delayed transmission Delay
> 250 msec
Communication partners
start talking at the same time
Effects of Delay
Classification of Delay
Accumulation Delay
Sampling Time for Codecs
Processing Delay
Coding Algorithm
Packaging Time
Network Delay
Propagation Delay
Switching/Routing Delay
Jitter Buffering Time
Play-out Buffer
Playout Buffer
Packets arrive with
Variable Delay
Real-time Signal
Fig. 5 Play-out buffer (TI2360EU01TI_0001 The Integrated Services Architecture: IntServ, 7)
Jitter Buffer
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3
1 2 3
4 5
4 5
Network Delay
+ Jitter
(with Jitter Buffer)
Recovery of original sequence using the RTP-timestamp
Sender
Receiver
6 7
6 7
Packet Loss
Ingress
Egress
*
*
Reasons for Packet Loss
bit errors (recognised by FCS Layer 2)
buffer overflow (reason: network overload)
delay times too high (data on egress side doesnt
arrive in time)
Measures to reduce the
effects of packet loss
do nothing
Comfort noise generation (for large gaps)
Repetition: Forwarding of last received packet
Redundancy: each packet carries the information of the
previous (compressed or uncompressed)
IntServ Applications and
Services
Application Service
Class
Guarantees Example
Real Time
Intolerant (RTI)
Guaranteed Bandwidth and
maximum delay
Video conference,
speech
Real Time
Tolerant (RTT)
Controlled
Load
Average Delay Video applications
Elastic - No packet loss TCP traffic
Resource Reservation
Protocol (RSVP)
Layer 3 control protocol
provides reservation of bandwidth (resp. buffer
capacity) on a router
unidirectional
receiver-controlled
IntServ Capable
IP Network
RSVP Message Transmission
Router
a
Router
b
Router
c
Router
e
Router
f
Router
d
Sender
Sender
Receiver
Receiver
PATH
PATHTear
RESVErr
RESVConf
RESV
RESVTear
PATHErr
RSVP - Functionality I
Receiver

Receiver

Receiver

Node

QoS
Node

QoS
Node

QoS
Sender

QoS
RESV Message
Data
RESV...Reservation Request
*
* Multicast messages will be aggregated by the node
*
PATH- Message
IP-routed from sender to all receivers
each passed router stores the PATH STATUS
- IP-address of previous node
- expected user data stream
RSVP - PATH and RESV Message
RESV Message
User Data
PATH Message
192.168.2.2

QoS
192.168.2.1
Sender
QoS
192.168.2.4

192.168.2.1
192.168.2.3
Recv
192.168.2.3

QoS 192.168.2.2
1 2 3
Fig. 1 (TI2360EU01TI_0001 The Differentiated Services Architecture: DiffServ, 3)
DiffServ- Principle
classification into different service classes
reservation of resources according to service class
(not fixed in the standards)
defines Per-Hop-Behavior (PHB)
uses ToS (Type of Service) field of the IP-header as
DS-Code Point (DSCP) field
DiffServ Architecture
Router
Router Router
Router
DS Domain
Network Boundary
Classification
And
Conditioning
Assigned to different
Behavior Aggregates
identified by a
single DS codepoint
Packets are forwarded according to the
per-hop behavior associated with the DS codepoint
Network Core
Single Administration
Provisioning of adequate
resources to support
the SLAs offered within
the DS domain
DiffServ DS field
DSCP CU
DSCP (DiffServ Code Point) - 6 bits
CU (unused) - 2 bits
DS field corresponds to
in IPv4 ToS field
in IPv6 Traffic Class field
DiffServ Codepoints in the DS field
Version LEN
Identification
Time to Live (TTL) Protocol
Total Length
0
D
F
M
F
Fragment Offset
Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options Padding
Data
IP
Header
0 4 8 16 31 bit
This is the DS field
DiffServ Codepoints in the DS Field
Currently Unused DiffServ Field
15 13
Fig. 14 DiffServ codepoints in the DS field (TI2360EU01TI_0001 The Differentiated Services Architecture: DiffServ, 19)
DiffServ - Domain
Edge Router:
classification
marking
control
Edge Router
Core Router
DS-Domain
DS-Domain
Service Level Agreement
Traffic Cond.Agreement
DiffServ - Assured Forwarding
4 PHB-classes: Olympic Service Model
(Class 1 Gold; Class 2 Silver; Class 3 Bronze)
For each class: 3 drop preference levels
Congestion: low low discard probability
high high discard probability)
Code Points (DSCP):

Drop Prec. Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
Low 001 010 010 010 011 010 100 010
Medium 001 100 010 100 011 100 100 100
High (highest
discard proba)
001 110 010 110 011 110 100 110
What is MPLS?
IP
Networks
Fig. 1 (TI2360EU01TI_0001 Fundamentals of Multiprotocol Label Switching MPLS, 3)
What is MPLS?
Multi-Protocol Label Switching:
specifies mechanisms for managing traffic flows
remains independent of the L2 and L3 protocols
provides a means of mapping L3 addresses to simple fixed length labels
labels are used for switching decisions on L2
defines specific paths across the network: Label Switched Path - LSP
an LSP is valid for a certain Forwarding Equivalence Class FEC
FEC and LSP enable Quality of Service QoS
on Layer 3 supports: IPv6, IPv4, IPX and AppleTalk.
on Layer 2 supports: Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, ATM,
Frame Relay, and Point-to-Point Links.
MPLS - Domain
Edge Router
Classification
Labeling
Core Router
Evaluating of label
Forwarding Table
relabeling, next hop
MPLS-Domain
Label Switched Path
LSR Router
payload IP
Label
(4 bytes)
MPLS Header
Layer 2
Header
MPLS
Header
IP Header User Data
Label EXP S TTL
20 bits 1 bit 3 bits 8 bits
32 bits
or
4 bytes
The Label field (20-bits) carries the actual value of the MPLS label.
The CoS field (3-bits) can affect the queuing and discard algorithms applied to the packet as it
is transmitted through the network.
The Stack (S) field (1-bit) supports a hierarchical label stack.
The TTL (time-to-live) field (8-bits) provides conventional IP TTL functionality.
Fig. 15 MPLS header (TI2360EU01TI_0001 Fundamentals of Multiprotocol Label Switching MPLS, 27)
MPLS - Forwarding Table
Edge Router
Classification
Labeling
MPLS-Domain
in out
port 11 label 5 port 3 label 7
port 11 label 2 port 1 label 15
port 1 label 15 port 3 label 7
port 4 label 2 port 6 label 5
... ... ... ...
Core Router
Evaluating label
Forwarding Table
relabeling, next hop
MPLS - Attributes
Classification according to FEC on Ingress Router
(source or destination IP-@, port, content, etc.)
fixed LSP minimizes jitter
Switching (L2) instead of Routing (L3)
reduces delay
different pathes for voice and data possible
bandwidth reservation: RSVP can be used

MPLS - Example
Data
5
3
Voice
5
5
5
3
3
Bottleneck (congestion!), if voice
and data are transmitted
Router A
Router B
Router C
Router D
Router E
MPLS - Operation
Router A
Router B
Router C
Router D
Router E
Routers A & E are Label Edge Routers LER
Routers B, C & D are Label Switching Routers - LSR