Computer Architecture

Computer Architecture
Conceptual design and fundamental operational
structure of the computer system
Science and art of selecting and interconnecting
hardware components to create computers that meet
performances, functions, and cost
The architecture of a computers system software
Design Goal
Revolve around the trade off between cost and
performance
Two Parts of Implementation
Organization consist of structure such as data
paths, control unit, memories and the buses that
interconnected.
Hardware represents the electronic circuits and
electromechanical; refers the logic, the electronic
technologies employed and the various physical
design aspects of the computer
Languages
Software Languages - used for creating executable
programs
Web Languages - Used for creating and editing pages
on the web
Programming Language
A language is defined as a system for
communicating. Written language use symbols to
build words. The entire set of words is the language
vocabulary. The language syntax and grammar
define the way in which the words can be
meaningfully combined. The actual meaning of
words and combinations of words is defined by the
languages semantics
Machine Language
The lowest level programming language. The only
language understood by computers and consist of
pure numbers. Other languages must be translated
to machine language before the computer can
execute the instructions. Because data in digital
computers is stored as either on or off electrical
states, machine language takes the form of either 0
or 1.

Low-Level Language
Also called as assembly languages and are similar to
machine languages. Instead of using 1snad 0s, to
specify the instructions, programmers use
mnemonics or machine op codes. The mnemonics
are English-like abbreviations for the machine
language instructions.
High-Level Language
Enable programmers to write programs that are
more or less independent of a particular type of
computer. Closer to human language than the
medicine language that the computer understands.
Easier to understand. They allow the programmer to
focus on solving the problem rather than knowing
how to program the computer.
examples
C
FORTRAN
Pascal
Ada
Algol
BASIC
COBOL
C
C++
Pre-computers and Early Computers
The abacus is considered by many to be the earliest
recorded calculating device
Invented by Babylonians
Other early computing devices include the slide rule,
the mechanical calculator,
This device was the first electromechanical machine
that could read punch cards special cards with
holes punched in them to represent data.
First-Generation Computers
They were powered by vacuum tubes glass tubes
that look similar to large, cylindrical light bulbs
Could only solve one problem at a time and needed
to be physically rewired to be reprogrammed
Input was via paper punch cards and paper tape, and
output was printed on paper.
Second-Generation Computers
The second generation of computers began when the
transistor a small device made of semiconductor
material that can act like a switch to open or close
electronic circuits started to replace the vacuum
tubes
Physically smaller, more powerful, cheaper, more-
energy efficient and more reliable
Input punch cards and magnetic tape
Output punch cards and paper print out
Storage magnetic tapes and disks
Programming languages such as FORTRAN and
COBOL were also developed and implemented
during this generation
FORmula TRANslation IBM Programmers lead by
John Backus
COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
Conference on Data Systems Language ( CODASYL )
Third-Generation Computers
The replacement of the transistor with integrated circuits
marked the beginning of the third generation of
computers
Integrated circuits incorporate many transistors and
electronic circuits on a single tiny silicon chip
Smaller and more reliable
Keyboards and monitors for input and output
Magnetic disk for storage
The introduction of computer operating system the
program that controls and directs the computer , enable
the computer hardware communicate the computer
software
Fourth-Generation Computers
The ability to place an increasing number of
transistors on a single chip led to the invention of the
microprocessor in 1971
A microprocessor contains the core processing
capabilities of an entire computer on one single chip
IBM PC, Apple Macintosh, todays modern computer
fall into this category
Keyboard and mouse for input
Monitor and printer for output
Magnetic disks and optical disks for storage
Witnessed the development of computer networks
and the internet

Fifth-Generation Computers
Based on artificial intelligence, allowing them to
think, reason and learn
Voice recognition for input
Computer will be constructed in the form of optical
computers that process data using light instead of
electrons
Virtual machine
A virtual machine (VM) is
a software implemented abstraction of the
underlying hardware, which is presented to
the application layer of the system
A self-contained operating environment that behaves
as if it is a separate computer
A virtual machine (VM) is a software
implementation of a machine that executes programs
like a physical machine.
Introduction of Computer
Is a programmable electronic device that accepts
data, performs operation on the data, presents result
and store data if needed.
Consist of a set of electronics

Fundamental Sequence
Accept instruction and data
Process the data according to a set of instructions
Produce results of information or actions
Computer System
Software used of instructions that define the tasks
that the hardware is to perform
Instructions it can execute a sequence of
instructions; it can execute instruction iteration; it
can execute instruction by selection
Category of Computer Architecture
ISA is the abstract image of computing systems
which is observed by machine language programmer
Micro architecture(computer organization)
depiction of any system that show how principal
parts of a system are unified in order to fulfil the
instruction set architecture.
System Design which consists of all other
hardware components in a computing system.
Improvement of Computer Architecture
25% per year delivering performances improvement
The ability of microprocessor to ride the
improvement
It was created for design goals to optimize personal
computers and of course it improves performance.
It was made to reach goals that would give us better
performance

The Effect of Dramatic Growth Rate in the
20
th
Century of Computer
It has significantly enhanced the capability available
to computer users
Dramatic rate of improvement has led to dominance
of microprocessor
Classes of Computers
Desktop Computing characterized in terms of
applications and benchmarking, though the
increasing use of web-centric, interactive
applications
Servers to provides larger scale and more reliable
file and computing services
Embedded Computers are the fastest growing
portion of the computer market
Trends in Technology
Integrated Circuit Logic Technology -
transistor density increases by about 35% per year
Semi conductor DRAM (Dynamic Random
Access Memory capacity increases by about 40%
per year doubling every two years
Magnetic Disk Technology density increased
by about 30% per year doubling every three years
Networking Technology network performance
depends both on the performance of switches and on
the performance of transmission system
Function and Structure
Function the operation of each individual
component as a part of the structure
Function of Computers
Data Processing
Data Storage
Data Movement
Data Processing
Any processing that uses a computer program to
enter data and summarize, analyze, and otherwise
convert data into usable information
Central Processing Unit
Is the hardware within a computer that carries out
the instructions of a computer program by
performing the basic arithmetical, logical,
and input/output operations of the system.
The brains of the computer where most calculations
take place
The most important element of a computer system.
Control Unit
Is the circuitry that controls the flow of information
through the processor and coordinates the activities
of the other units within the processor. The brain
within the brain.
Also called as control system, a device that manage,
command, direct, or regulate the behavior of the
other devices or systems.

Data Path
Often used in a wider context to mean any logical or
physical connection between a source and
destination of digital or analog information

Computer Bus
An electrical pathway through which the processor
communicates with the internal and external devices
attached to the computer

Data Storage
Computer components and reaching media that
retain digital data used or computing for some
interval of time
Ex. Memory of a computer (RAM) retrieval of data
and update
Primary Storage
Internal memory and main memory storage locations
that holds memory for short periods of time while the
computer is on
Example:
RAM main memory of the system(Random Access
Memory)

Cache high speed access area that can be either a
reserved section of main memory or storage device
Is a component that transparently stores data so that
future requests for that data can be served faster.
Example of RAM
DIMM Dual In Line Memory Module 64 bits
paths because of the Pentium processor requirement
RIMM Memory Module that consists of RDRAM
chips
184 pins used for Intel Pentium 4 Motherboards
160 pins used for laptop computer
Same as DIMM but different in settings

SIPP Single In Line Pin Package consisted of a
small printed circuit board upon which were
mounted of number of memory
It had 30 pins along one edge which mated with
matching holes in the motherboard of the computer.
SIMM Single In Line Memory Module circuit
boards that holds 6 to 9 memory chips per boards.
The 9
th
chip usually can error checking chip 72 pins.
Secondary Storage
Sometimes called auxiliary storage, is all
data storage that is not currently in a computer's
primary storage or memory
An additional synonym is external storage.
Differs from the primary storage that it is not directly
accessible by the CPU


Examples :
HDD (Hard Disk Drive) computer device which
stores digitally encoded data
The main, and usually largest, data storage device in
a computer. The operating system software titles and
most other files are stored in the hard disk drive.
SSD (Solid State Drive) data storage device that
uses solid-state memory to store persistent data

Tertiary Storage
Provides a third level of storage. Primarily useful for
extraordinary large data stores, accessed without
human operators

Examples

Tape Library storage device which contains one
or more tape drives, a number of slots to hold tape
cartridges
Optical Jukebox a computer data storage that
can automatically load and unload optical discs
Off-Line Storage a computer data storage on a
medium or a device that is not under the control of a
processing unit
Examples of Offline Storage
Floppy Disk data storage on a medium that is
composed of a disk of thin, flexible magnetic storage
medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic
shell
Compact Disc an optical disc used to store digital
data. It was originally developed to store sound
recordings exclusively , but later it also allowed the
preservation of other types of data

DVD (Digital Disc or Digital Versatile Disc)
is an optical disc storage media format
USB Flash Drive consists of a flash memory data
storage device integrated with a USB
Computer Memory.
Memory refers to the physical devices used to store
programs (sequence of instructions) or data on a
temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer
or other digital electronic device
Something that stores, preserves and recalls data
when needed
Types of Memory Cache
Memory Cache portion on memory of high
speed static RAM and effective because most
programs access the same data or instructions over
and over.
Disk Cache used to access commonly accessed
data, A portion of RAM used to speed
up access to data on a disk.
Internet Browser Cache temporary internet
files that is use to improve how fast data is opened
while browsing the internet
Data Movement
Instructions move data from one locations to
another
An operation that physically moves a row from one
location to another location in a table
The source and destination locations are determined
by the addressing modes, and can be registers or
memory
Earlier processors had different instructions and
different names for different kinds of data
movement, while most modern processors group
data movement into a single symbolic name, with
different kinds of data movement being indicated by
address mode and size designation.
Kinds of Data Movement
Load instructions - loads a register from a
memory
Store instructions - store the contents of the
register into memory
Transfer instructions - loads a register from
another. In processors that have separate names for
different kinds of data moves, a memory to memory
data move might be specially designated as a move
instruction.

Exchange instructions exchanges the content of
two registers, two memory locations, or a register
and a memory location

Processors
A processor, or "microprocessor," is a small chip that
resides in computers and other electronic devices. Its
basic job is to receive input and provide the
appropriate output. While this may seem like a
simple task, modern processors can handle trillions
of calculations per second.
The central processor of a computer is also known as
the CPU, or "central processing unit." This processor
handles all the basic system instructions
Pentium III
brand refers to Intel's 32-bit x86 desktop and
mobile microprocessors based on the sixth-
generation P6 micro architecture introduced on
February 26, 1999.
the Pentium III processor comes with
a Synchronized Dynamic Random Access
Memory (SDRAM), allowing for an extremely fast
transfer of data between the microprocessor and the
memory.
Pentium 4
Pentium 4 was a line of single-
core desktop and laptop central processing
units (CPUs), introduced by Intel on November 20,
2000 and shipped through August 8, 2008.
Pentium 4 clock speeds were over 2.0 GHz.
Pentium 4 variants included code named Willamette,
Northwood, Prescott and Cedar Mill with clock
speeds that varied from 1.3-3.8 GHz.
Dual Core
refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution
cores per physical processor
It has combined two processors and their caches and
cache controllers onto a single integrated
circuit (silicon chip).
well-suited for multitasking environments because
there are two complete execution cores instead of
one,
Core 2 Dou
Intels first dual core for Centrino Laptops. First x86
chips used in Macintosh as Apple transitioned from
the Power PC to the x86 CPU Families.
Core 2 Quad
Processor for desktop PCs is designed to handle
massive compute and visualization workloads
enabled by powerful multi-core technology

I Series
The family of Intel Core is a brand name used for
various mid-range to high-end consumer and
business microprocessors made by Intel
Core i3
Core i3 is Intels latest budget processor. Even
though the Core i3 is the lowest of the bunch, its still
a very good processor that has received good to
outstanding reviews by the majority of experts and
customers alike.
Core i3s have even been known to perform closely to
lower end Core 2 Quad processors.
Core i5
Core i5 is the latest mid-range processor by Intel. A
step up from the Core i3, i5 processors will give you a
noticeable difference in speed, depending on what
type of applications that you run. If you are playing
solitaire, you arent going to be able to tell a
difference between Core i3 and Core i5 processors. If
you are editing multiple files in Adobe Flash, with
virtualization software, you may notice the Core i5 to
be snappier.
There are two main types of Core i5 Processors, dual
core, and quad core
Core i5s offer enough performance to do stuff like
video editing and gaming
A Core i5 processor is a great, mid-range priced
processor for people who use their computers
frequently and often multi task.
Core i7
Core i7 is the name of a group of computer
processors created by Intel Corporation released in
the fall of 2008
The family of Core i7 processors also expands a
computers abilities what are known as multiple
cores. Cores are independent processors that can be
integrated to work together in a single computer.
Computer Hardware
Refers to the various electronic components that are
required for you to use a computer along with the
hardware components inside the computer case
Six Common Component
The main computer box
Monitor
Keyboard
Mouse
Speakers
An Optional Printer
Function of the Main Computer Box
Temporary storage of information (known as
data in more technical terms) this function is
done by memory
Permanent Storage of Information this
function is done by a hard disk, floopy disk, or CD
ROM
Manipulation or processing of data used to
determine where data is stored and perform
calculations which support operations that the user
is doing
Interfacing to the outside components or to
the outside world this supports the ability for
the user to communicate with the computer and
know how the computer is responding to commands
which are done primarily through the monitor,
keyboard, and mouse along with their interface
components in the main computer box.
Power Supply which provides the electrical
power to the components in the computer box.
Several Computer Hardware Components
and Subcomponents
The case
The motherboard
Memory
Microprocessor
Video interface card which is also called the video card
Sound card
One or more permanent storage devices some of
which may be optional
Hard disk
CD ROM drive or DVD drive
Floopy Drive


The Case
The outside component which provides protection
for the parts inside and provides a fan and power
supply which are used to both cool the working parts
inside and provide power to them
A Typical Computer with Tower Case
Inside the Case
Motherboard
The main circuit board inside a computer which
contains the central processing unit, the bus,
memory sockets, expansion slots and other
components
Alternatively known as the main board, system
board, or on Apple Computers the logic board. It is
also sometimes usually shortened to mobo
Primary Circuit Board
Responsible for connecting all computer devices to
the microprocessor. It supplies devices with power
and allows the computer to react with them. Devices
that can be used by connecting the motherboard are:
Storage devices
Sound cards
Graphic cards
Hard disks

Chipset
A chipset is a set of electronic components in an
integrated circuit that manage the data flow between
the processor, memory and peripherals.
It is usually found in the motherboard of a computer.

Two Parts
Northbridge a part of a motherboard chipset, a
pair of chips that provide controlling functions in
support of the boards CPU. Usually located near the
CPU, the Northbridge provides memory control and
interface for the graphics controller and south bridge
I/O controllers
Southbridge I/O controller hub in Intel Systems
usually be distinguished from the Northbridge by not
being directly connected to the CPU.

Basic Input/output System
Chips controls the most basic functions of the computer
and performs a self-test every time
Peripheral Component Interconnect Express
(PCI-Express) connection for video, sound and video
capture cards, as well as multiple of the other cards. PCI
Express is a newer protocol that acts more like a network
than a bus
AGP Accelerated Graphics Ports (AGP)
dedicated port for video
Integrated Drive Electronics or Intelligent Drive
Connector (IDE Socket) interfaces for the hard
drive
Universal Serial Bus (USB) or Fire wire for
external peripherals, to establish communication
between devices and a host controller
Memory Slots commonly refers to the slot
computer memory is placed into the computer
(memory) motherboard or I/O board, a space for
place memory modules
Redundant Array of Independent Discs
(RAID) controllers allow the computer to
recognize multiple hard drives as one drive
CPU Sockets in order to connect to a
motherboard, CPUs feature a set of pins that have
perfectly fit the socket
Monitor Visual Display Unit
CRT e cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube
containing an electron gun (a source of electrons)
and a fluorescent screen, with external and internal
means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam,
used to create images in the forms of light emitted
from the fluorescent screen.
LCD a liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel
display electronic visual display, video display that
uses the light modulating properties of liquid
crystals do not emit light directly
LED Light Emitting Diodes LED monitors are
basically just a new kind of LCDs as they still use
liquid crystals to produce desired image on screen.
Their main difference is type of back light that they
use for image reproduction
Advantages of Digital Techniques

Limitations of Digital Techniques

The Future is Digital

Digital Number Systems

Decimal Systems

Decimal Counting

Binary System

Binary Counting

Representing Binary Quantities

Digital Signals and Timing Diagrams

Digital Circuits/Logic Circuits

Digital Integrated Circuits

Parallel and Serial Transmission

Memory

Digital Computers

Major Parts of Computers

Central Processing Unit

Types of Computers