Cellular Reproduction

Asexual reproduction

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 Cell Reproduction
 New cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 Every new cell formed must inherit
 genetic information and
 cell organelles.
 The process of cell reproduction has three
major parts.
 Replication of the parental cell's DNA.

 Separation of the duplicated DNA into two

equally sized groups of chromosomes.

 Physical division of entire cells, dividing

cytoplasm.
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 Cell Reproduction
 In higher organisms each cell usually contains two similar
copies of each chromosome, called HOMOLOGOUS
CHROMOSOMES.
 One of these copies is a maternal contribution and the
other is a paternal contribution.
 Together, these are called a homologous pair and each
alone is called a HOMOLOGUE (= 2 chromatids).

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 Eukaryotic Cell Reproduction
 Eukaryotic cells reproduce in two different ways:
mitosis and meiosis.
 Both asexual and sexual reproduction requires cell
division.

 Most human cells are frequently reproduced and

replaced during the life of an individual by mitosis. 

 The sex cells, sperm and ova, are produced by mei

osis in special tissues of male testes and female o
varies. 

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 Eukaryotic Cell Reproduction
 Mitosis is the most common form of cell
replication.
 Mitosis process is a part of a larger cell

cycle which includes periods of preparation f

or synthesizing copies of cellular components
and division.
 Mitosis, the equational division and
 Meiosis, the reductional division.
 The cycle occurs continuously in most
organisms.
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Cell Cycle

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 Cell Cycle
 The cell cycle is an ordered set of events of cell
growth and division into two daughter cells.
 These events can be divided in two brief periods:

 Interphase—during which the cell grows,

accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis and

duplicating its DNA—and
 Mitotic phase, during which the cell splits itself

into two distinct cells, often called "daughter

cells".

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 Phases of the cell cycle
 The cell cycle
consists
of 2 distinct
phases:
 1. Interphase
 1.1 G1
 1.2 S

 1.3 G2

 2. Mitosis
 2.1 Nuclear division
 2.2 Cytokinesis

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 G1 Phase
 Intensive cellular synthesis:
 cell organelles, RNA’s, srtrucral and functional proteins,
substances produced to stimulate or inhibit the next phase.
 synthesis of various enzymes that are required in S phase,
mainly those needed for DNA replication.
 Cell growth occurs.
 Duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different
cells of the same species.
 Nonproliferative cells in multicellular eukaryotes
generally enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and may
remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly
indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). It is called
cell cycle arrest.
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 S Phase (DNA Synthesis Phase)
 The ensuing S phase starts
when DNA synthesis occurs;
when it is complete, all of the
chromosomes have been
replicated, i.e., each
chromosome has two (sister)
chromatids.
 Rates of RNA transcription and
protein synthesis are very low
during this phase, exception for
histone production.

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 G2 Phase
 The cell then enters the G2 phase, which lasts until
the cell enters mitosis.
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts begin to devide.

 Again, significant protein synthesis occurs during this

phase, mainly involving the production of

microtubules, which are required mitotic spindle
fibers.
 Inhibition of protein synthesis during G2 phase

prevents the cell from undergoing mitosis.

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 M phase
 The relatively brief M phase consists of
nuclear division (karyokinesis) and
cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis). In plants
and algae, cytokinesis is accompanied by the
formation of a new cell wall.
 Karyokinesis : It is the process of nuclear
division, which involves separation of
chromatids and their redistribution as
chromosomes into daughter cells.
 Cytokinesis : It is the process of division of
the cytoplasm to result in the formation of
daughter cells.

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Control of Cell Cycle
1. Role of Protein Kinase
2. Checkpoints
3. Kinase Inhibitors

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 1. Role of
Maturatio
n-
promoting
factor
(MPF)
• cyclin-
dependent
kinase
(cdk)
• cyclin
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Mammalian Cell Cycle

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 2. Cell Cycle Checkpoints
 The cell cycle proceeds by a defined sequence of events
where late events depend upon completion of early events.
 To monitor this dependency, cells are equipped with the

checkpoints which are set at various stages of the cell cycle.

 The checkpoints are surveillance mechanism and quality

control of the genome to maintain genomic integrity.
1. DNA damage checkpoint
2. DNA replication checkpoint
3. Spindle checkpoint and Morphogenesis checkpoint

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 Cell Cycle Checkpoints (cont)
1. DNA damage checkpoint : When cells have DNA damages that
arrests cell cycle, at least 3 checkpoints: G1/S (G1) checkpoint,
intra-S phase checkpoint, and G2/M checkpoint.
2. DNA replication checkpoint (Apoptosis checkpoint): that arrests cell
cycle at G2/M transition until DNA replication is complete.
3. Spindle checkpoint and Morphogenesis checkpoint.
 The spindle checkpoint arrests cell cycle at M phase until all

chromosomes are aligned on spindle. This checkpoint is very

important for equal distribution of chromosomes.
 Morphogenesis checkpoint detects abnormality in cytoskeleton and

arrests cell cycle at G2/M transition.

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Cell Cycle Arrests

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3. Proteins Interplay in Cell Cycle

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Growth arrest and apoptosis are induced by
genotoxic stress.

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Cell Cycle Inhibitors - Therapy

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 M phase of the Cell Cycle
The relatively brief M phase
consists of
 Karyokinesis / nuclear division :
Process of separation of
chromatids and their
redistribution as chromosomes
into daughter cells and
 Cytokinesis / cytoplasmic division
: Process of division of the
cytoplasm to result in the
formation of daughter cells.

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 Mitosis
 Just prior to karyokinesis, the cell
will be in interphase to undergo
DNA replication.
 The DNA each chromosome

exists as a pair of chromatids

joined together by a centromere.

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Mitotic Cell Division

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 Metaphase Checkpoint / Spindle

Checkpoint
The spindle checkpoint is a regulatory network that
monitors spindle integrity and the attachment of
chromosomes to the spindle.
 In the presence of defects, the checkpoint system arrests

cells at the metaphase to anaphase transition.

 Lack of metaphase checkpoint in tumor cells.

 1. MAD2 gene encodes protein in kinetochore.

 2. Monoattachment of spindle fibers.

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Metaphase Checkpoint

Microtubule
inhibitors:
-
D, cytochalasin
- colchicine,
- vinblastine
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 Cytokinesis
 It is the division of cytoplasm.
 The furrow in the middle of the cell by actin
filaments deepens and divides the cell into two
daughter cells.

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 Significance of Mitosis
 Mitosis forms two daughter cells which will have the same chromosome
number and same genetic material as the parent cell, no variation would be
introduced, and results in genetic stability within the populations of cells
derived from parental cells, as in a clone.
 The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis and this
process is called hyperplasia. It forms the basis for growth.
 Mitosis is also responsible for repair and regeneration of the injured and lost
parts of the body.
 If mitotic division goes uncontrolled in any part of the body, it results in the
formation of malignant cells. These cells continue to divide resulting in the
formation of malignant tumours. This condition is called cancer.

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 Meiosis
germ cell division

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 Meiosis
 Cell division that occurs only in the reproductive cells.
 The daughter cells will carry half the number of
chromosomes and half the amount of genetic material
compared to the parent cell, known as reductional
division.
 Decrease in the chromosome number from the diploid
(2n) condition to the haploid (n) condition.
 In meiosis, nucleus divides twice successively

 first meiotic division (or meiosis I) and

 second meiotic division (or meiosis II).

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Stages of Meiosis

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 Stages of Meiosis

First Meiotic Division

 Reductional division : daughter cells will

have half the number of chromosomes as tha

t of the parent cell.
Second Meiotic Division
 Separation of two chromatids of each

chromosomes.
 Meiosis-II also has a karyokinesis and a

cytokinesis.
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 Interphase : The Preparatory Phase
 Cell organells replicate and size of the cell
increases.
 DNA molecule undergoes replication.
 Each chromosome exists as a pair of
chromatids joined together by a centromere.

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Meiosis

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 Prophase I
 It is the phase of longest duration and involves
a series of significant changes in the
chromosomes.
 These changes are often described in five

substages namely
 Leptontene (thin),

 Zygotene (synapse),

 Pachytene (thick),

 diplotene (two),

 Diakinesis (across).
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Leptotene:
 Chromosomes shorten and become visible as single
structures. In some cases they have a beaded
appearance
showing densely staining material called
chromomeres alternating with nonstaining regions. 

Zygotene:
 Paternal and maternal chromosomes come together and
pair up.
 This pairing of homologous chromosmes is called
synapsis.
The paired chromosomes are described as bivalents.
 The bivalents shorten and thicken (spiralisation). 

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Pachytene:
 Each chromosome splits into two chromatids and

thus each pair will have four chromatids

two paternal and two maternal, now called tetrads.
 The non-sister chromatids of the paternal and maternal

chromosomes overlap each other and joined at several

regions along their length. These points are called Chia
smata.
 Each chiasma is the site of an exchange of genetic

material between the two chromatids.

 It occurs due to breakage and reunion between the two

non-sister chromatids, called genetic recombination.

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Diplotene:
 The chromosomes start separating, called as
disjunction. 

Diakinesis:
 Separation of the chromosomes is now complete
with paternal and maternal chromosomes having ex
changed
portions of chromatids.
 The chromosomes condense again.

 The chiasmata disappear by sliding towards the tips

of the chromatids, called terminalisation.  
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
Asters and spindle fibres make their appearance.
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Meiosis I = separation of homologous
chromosomes
n
2n
n

n
n

n
n

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Meiosis II = seaparation of chromatids

n n
n n

n
n

n
n
n n
n
n

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 Significance of Meiosis
 It brings about a reduction in the chromosome
number from a diploid (2n) condition to a haploid (
n) condition.
 Such a reduction becomes necessary for

maintaining the chromosome number. 

 It provides chance for the appearance of new gene

combinations as a result of crossing over.

 This situation brings about variations. 

 It is a division necessary for the formation of

gametes in animals and spores in plants.

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Genetic Independent Assortment

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Spermatoge
nesis

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Oogenesis

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Meiosis -
Mitosis

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