Wireless - 3.1 (Mobile Radio Propgation Small Scale Path Loss) New

Small Scale Fading
− We have read Large Scale fading Now we will discuss Small Scale
Fading
1
What is Small Scale Fading?
−In telecommunications, fading is a

change in the attenuation of a
communications channel
− Rapid fluctuations of the amplitude of a

radio signal over a short period of time or
travel distance.
2
What is Small Scale Fading?
− Small Scale Fading is caused by interference between two or more
versions of transmitted signal, which arrives at the receiver at slightly
different times and called Multipath waves.
− Invalidates Large-scale path loss
3
Causes of Small Scale Fading
− In urban areas, fading occurs because the height
of mobile is << height of surrounding structures,
such as buildings and trees.
− Existence of several propagation paths between

transmitter and receiver reaching with different
propagation delays.
− Even there is a LoS , multipath still occurs due to

reflections from the ground and surrounding
structures.
4
Multipath Components
5
Radio Signals Arriving from different directions to receiver
Component 1
Component 2
Component N
Receiver may be stationary or mobile.

6
− At a receiver point
 Radio waves generated from

the same transmitted signal
may come
• from different directions
• with different propagation
delays
• with (possibly) different
amplitudes (random) Example of Multipath
• with (possibly) different
phases (random)
• with different angles of
arrival (random).
 These Multipath components

combine vectorially at the
receiver antenna and cause the
total signal Phase difference between
original and reflected wave
– to fade
– to distort
7
Signal’s Variations
8
Multipath fading
Simulated Rayleigh Fading

9
Question ?????
− Before going onward we differentiate
• Attenuation
• Shadowing
• Fading
• Distortion
10
Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading
− Physical factors in the radio propagation which
influence small scale fading.
 Multipath propagation
• Presence of reflecting objects and scatterers cause

multiple versions of the signal to arrive at the receiver
– With different amplitudes and time delays

– Causes the total signal at receiver to fade or distort
11
 Speed of mobile (Doppler shift)
• Cause Doppler shift at each multipath component
• Causes random frequency modulation
 Speed of surrounding objects.

• This is considered only if the speed of the surrounding
objects is greater than the mobile.
• Causes time-varying Doppler shift on the multipath
components
12
 Transmission bandwidth of signal and bandwidth
of channel.
• The transmitted radio signal bandwidth and
bandwidth of the multipath channel affect the
received signal properties:
» If amplitude fluctuates or not
» If the signal is distorted or not
13
Echo generation at receiver
Multipath
channel
Time
Delay
Replicas
14
Small scale fading
− Two main reasons :
• Multipath time delay spread (Multipath propagation delays )
• Doppler spread
15
Small scale fading
BS
Flat fading
BC
Multi path time delay
BS
Frequency selective fading
BC
fading
TS
Fast fading TC
Doppler spread
Slow fading TS
TC
16
Revision of basic concepts
− Channel Impulse response
− Inter Symbol Interference
− Power delay profile
− Coherence bandwidth
− Coherence time
17
Channel Impulse Response
y (t )
x(t )
Channel
18
Channel Impulse Response
Multipath
Channel
Transmitted pulse at t = 0
19
Measured Impulse Response
Examples of measured channel impulse responses of multipath
propagation channel at 3.5 GHz frequency band
0 0
Relative power (dB)
Relative power (dB)

-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
-40 -40
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Excess delay (us) Excess delay (us)
0 0
Relative power (dB)
Relative power (dB)

-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
-40 -40
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Excess delay (us) Excess delay (us)
20
Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
− A form of distortion of a signal in which one
symbol interferes with subsequent symbols.
− ISI is usually caused by multipath propagation

and the inherent frequency response of a
channel.
− Second Multipath is delayed and is received

during next symbol
21
Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
− This is an unwanted phenomenon as the previous
symbols have similar effect as noise, thus making the
communication less reliable.
− The presence of ISI in the system introduces errors

in the decision device at the receiver output.
− In the design of the transmitting and receiving

filters, the objective is to minimize the effects of
ISI, and thereby deliver the digital data to its
destination with the smallest error rate possible.
22
Inter Symbol interference (ISI)
ISI
S0 S1 Multipath
channel
Time
Delay
23
Attenuation, Dispersion Effects: ISI!
Inter-symbol interference (ISI)
24
25
26
Power Delay Profile (PDP)
− PDP is a graph between Time (x-axis) and Received
Signal level (dB)
− PDP gives the intensity of a signal received Pd (τ )

through a multipath channel as a function of time delay
τ (The time delay is the difference in travel time
between multipath arrivals)
− It is easily measured empirically and can be used to

extract certain channel's parameters such as the delay
spread.
27
Power delay profile (PDP)
− The impulse response indicates the power of received
components along with the delays associated with
them. Power delay profile (PDP) or multi-path intensity
profile is obtained by averaging a large set of impulse
responses.
28
A typical shape of the power delay profile
29
Power delay profile (PDP)
-90
RMS Delay Spread (σ τ ) = 46.4 ns
-90
Received Signal Level (dBm)
Mean Excess delay (τ ) = 45 ns
-95
Maximum Excess delay < 10 dB = 110 ns
-100
Noise threshold
-105
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Excess Delay (ns)

30
Multipaths: Power-Delay Profile
Power
path-1
path-2
path-3
multi-path propagation path-2
Path Delay
path-1
path-3
Mobile Station (MS)
Base Station (BS)
31
Time Dispersion Parameters
− In order to compare different multipath channels and
to develop some general design guidelines for
wireless systems, parameters which grossly quantify
the Multipath channel are used.
− Parameters that can be determined from a power

delay profile
1. Delay Spread
2. Mean Excess Delay
3. RMS Delay Spread
4. Excess delay spread (X dB)
32
1 Delay Spread
− Delay spread is a type of distortion caused when an identical
signal arrives at different times at its destination.
− When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a

receiver, signal suffers one or more reflections. This
forces signal to follow different paths. Each path has
different path length and different angles of arrival, so the
time of arrival for each path is different.
− The time difference between the arrival moment of the first

multipath component (typically the Line of Sight component)
and the last one, is called delay spread.
33
1 Delay Spread
− This effect which spreads out the signal is
called “Delay Spread”.
− Maximum Delay after which the received signal

becomes negligible
34
2 Mean Excess Delay
− The mean excess delay “ τ ” is defined to be
35
3 RMS Delay Spread
− RMS Delay spread is defined as
36
4 Maximum Excess Delay (X dB)
− The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power delay profile
is defined to be the time delay during which Multipath energy
falls to X dB below the maximum .
− Maximum excess delay as
 τ 0 = the first arriving signal``

 τ =x maximum delay at which a Multipath component is
within X dB of the strongest arriving Multipath signal (which
does not necessarily arrive at τ 0 )
− The maximum excess delay (X dB) defines the extent of
the Multipath that is above a particular threshold.
37
Coherence Bandwidth
− Analogous to the delay spread parameters in the time domain, coherence
bandwidth is used to characterize the channel in the frequency domain.
− The range of frequencies that experience the same fading (flat )fading
− Bc is a statistical measure of range of frequencies over which the channel

passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear
phase
− A statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over which the

channel can be considered "flat“
38
Coherence Bandwidth
−Coherence bandwidth is the range of
frequencies over which two frequency
components have a strong potential for
amplitude correlation.
− The coherence Bc is the bandwidth for which

either amplitudes or phases of two receiver
signals have a high degree of similarity.
39
Delay spread and coherence band width
Time domain view Freq. domain view
x(t ) X(f )
Range of freq over

which response is flat
σ τ delay spread Bc
High correlation of amplitude

between two different freq.
components
40
RMS delay spread and coherence band width
− The rms delay spread and coherence bandwidth are

inversely proportional to one another, although their
exact relationship is a function of the exact multipath
structure.
− RMS delay spread and coherence

b/w (Bc) are inversely proportional
1
Bcα
στ
41
− If the coherence bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth

over which the frequency correlation function is above
0.9, then the coherence bandwidth is approximately
− If the definition is relaxed so that the frequency

correlation function is above 0.5. then the coherence
bandwidth is approximately
42
Estimation of Coherence Bandwidth
− The standard deviation of the distribution of multipath signal amplitudes is called delay
spread. For directive antenna is characterized by the rms (RMS delay spread of the entire
delay profile) which is defined as:
− Delay spread varies with the terrain with typical values for rural, urban and suburban areas
Delay spread figures Delay in

at 900 MHz microseconds
Urban 1.3
Urban, worst-case 10 - 25
Suburban, typical 0.2 - 0.31
Suburban, extreme 1.96 - 2.11
Indoor, maximum 0.27
Delay Spread at 1900 MHz
Buildings, average 0.07 - 0.094
Buildings, worst - 1.47
case 43
− Exact relationship between coherence bandwidth and
RMS delay spread does not exist, and equations (4.38)
and (4.39) are SIMPLY ESTIMATES
− In general, Spectral Analysis Techniques and

simulation are required to determine the exact impact
that time varying Multipath has on a particular
transmitted signal
44
Example (Power delay profile)
− Calculate the mean excess delay, rms delay
spread, and the maximum excess delay (10
dB) for the Multipath profile given in the
figure below.
− Estimate the 50% coherence bandwidth of
the channel. Would this channel be suitable
for AMPS or GSM service without the use of
an equalizer?
45
Example (Power delay profile)
Pr(τ ) 4.38 µs
1.37 µs
0 dB
-10 dB
-20 dB
-30 dB τ
0 1 2 5 (µs)
_
(1)(5) +(0.1)(1) +(0.1)(2) +(0.01)(0)
τ= = 4.38µs
[0.01+0.1+0.1+1]
_
(1)(5) 2 + (0.1)(1) 2 + (0.1)(2) 2 + (0.01)(0) 2
τ =
2
= 21.07µs 2
[0.01+ 0.1+ 0.1+1]
σ τ = 21.07 −(4.38) 2 =1.37µs

46
Example
For a specific channel, if Coherence time is 1.37
Micro sec, then coherence bandwidth is :
1
(50% − coherence) Bc ≈ = 146kHz
5.σ τ
− Signal bandwidth for Analog Cellular = 30

KHz
− Signal bandwidth for GSM = 200 KHz
− Since Bc is greater than 30 kHz. AMPS will
work without an equalizer.
− However, GSM requires 200 kHz bandwidth
which exceeds thus an equalizer would be47
needed for this channel.
Small scale fading
− Two main reasons :
• Multipath time delay spread (Multipath propagation delays )
• Doppler spread
48
Types of Small-Scale Fading
−The “time dispersion” and “time varying”
mechanisms in a mobile radio channel
lead to four possible distinct effects,
which are manifested depending on
• Nature of the transmitted signal

• Channel
• Velocity.
49
Small scale fading
BS
Flat fading
BC
BS
BC
fading
TS
Fast fading TC
Doppler spread
Slow fading TS
TC
50
Small scale fading-Case-1
− Fading Effects when Transmitter and Receiver are
Stationary
 “Coherence Bandwidth” and “RMS Delay Spread” gives

information When Transmitter and Receiver are Stationary.
− They describe the “Time dispersive nature” of the channel.
− But don't offer information of the “time varying nature” of

the channel caused by either relative information between
mobile and the base station ,or by movement of the objects
in the channel.
51
Small scale fading-Case 2
− Fading Effects when relative movement
between Transmitter and Receiver
 “Time Varying nature” of the channel in a small-

scale region
 “Doppler spread” and “Coherence time” are

parameters which describe the “Time Varying”
nature of the channel in a small-scale region.
52
Fading Effects when Transmitter and Receiver are
Stationary
6
v
1 τ 6
τ 1
τ 2 5
τ 5
Stationary
2
τ 4
Field strength
τ 3
4
3 v
53
t
Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread
−Time dispersion due to multipath causes
the transmitted signal to undergo either
• Flat Fading or
• Frequency selective fading.
54
Flat Fading
− When the “Coherence bandwidth “is greater than or
equal to the “transmitted signal's bandwidth”, the
received signal will undergo flat fading.
 Bs << Bc
− When the symbol energy duration of a transmitted

signal is greater than the delay spread of a channel
that the transmitter uses to transmit the signal, the
receiver will experience flat fading. This delay is
inversely proportional to bandwidth.
55
Flat Fading
− In flat fading, the multipath structure of
the channel is such that the “Spectral
characteristics” of transmitted signal
are preserved / maintained at receiver.
All freq. components are affected by
channel a similar manner
− However the strength of the received

signal changes with time, due to
fluctuations in the gain of the channel
caused by multipath.
− In Frequency domain view, certain

frequency components in the received
signal spectrum have greater
amplitudes than others.
− Received signal includes multiple

versions of transmitted waveform so
received signal is distorted.
56
Flat Fading
− Flat fading channels are also known as “Amplitude Varying
Channels” and are sometimes referred to as “Narrowband
channels”, since the bandwidth of the applied signal is
narrow as compared to the channel flat fading bandwidth.
− Typical flat fading channels cause deep fades, and thus may
require 20 or 30 dB more transmitter power to achieve low
bit error rates during times of deep fades as compared to
systems operating over non-fading channels
− Flat fading results in a burst of error. Fading increases

the average signal-to-noise ratio needed for a particular
error rate.
− Error correction coding is used to overcome this

problem.
•
57
Flat Fading in CDMA
− Flat fading is a fade of the entire bandwidth.
This is far less likely to occur in the
wideband CDMA system than in narrowband
systems.
− This kind of fading can happen when there is
substantial multipath interference arriving
too close together in time to be
distinguishable.
58
Small scale fading
BS
Flat fading
BC
BS
BC
fading
TS
Fast fading TC
Doppler spread
Slow fading TS
TC
59
Frequency Selective Fading
− When the coherence bandwidth is less than the transmitted signal's
bandwidth, the received signal will undergo frequency selective
fading.
Bs > Bc
− Then a notch appears in the spectrum. Thus resulting in inter-
symbol interference (ISI).
− If the transmission bandwidth is wider than the coherence bandwidth

of the channel, the receiver can separate multipath components.
60
− If the channel possesses a “constant-gain” and “linear phase
response” over a bandwidth that is smaller than the bandwidth of
transmitted signal, then the channel creates “frequency selective
fading” on the received signal.
− When this occurs, the received signal includes multiple versions of

the transmitted waveform which are attenuated (faded) and
delayed in time, and hence the received signal is distorted.
− Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the

transmitted symbols within the channel. Interference with
“neighbor” symbols, resulting in Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
61
− Viewed in the frequency domain, certain
frequency components in the received signal
spectrum have greater gains than others.
− Frequency selective fading channels are

known as wideband channels since the BW
of the signal is wider than the BW of the
channel impulse response.
62
Frequency Selective Fading in CDMA
− In the frequency domain, a
fade can appear as a notch
that moves back and forth
across the spectrum as
channel conditions change.
The width of the notch is
proportional to the difference
− in the arrival times of the
multipath signals. For a
bandwidth of 1.23 MHz, only
those multipaths arriving less
than 1 microsecond apart can
cause the signal to experience
a deep fade. The figure is a
simple illustration. In practice,
several notches can exist with
varying levels of depth.
63
− All freq. components are not affected by channel a
similar manner
− To overcome this, an adaptive equaliser (AE) with
inverse response may be used at the receiver.
− Training sequences are transmitted to update AE.
Power
Signal bandwidth Bs
Describes frequency selective
phenomenon of fast fading
Coherence
Bandwidth Bc
Freq.
Effect of frequency selective fading on the received signal spectrum
64
Summary of Flat and Frequency Selective Fading
65
Summary of Flat and Frequency Selective Fading
Based on Time-Spreading
Flat Fading Frequency Selective

1. BS < BC  Tm < Ts 1. BS > BC  Tm > Ts
2. Rayleigh, Ricean distrib. 2. Intersymbol Interference
3. Spectral chara. of transmitted 3. Spectral chara. of transmitted
signal preserved signal not preserved
1. Multipath components resolved
Channel Channel
Signal Signal
BC BS
BS freq. BC freq.
66
Small scale fading-Case1—We have discussed
− Fading Effect when Transmitter and Receiver are
Stationary
 “Coherence Bandwidth” and “RMS Delay Spread” gives

information When Transmitter and Receiver are Stationary.
− They describe the “Time dispersive nature” of the channel.
− But don't offer information of the “time varying nature” of

the channel caused by either relative information between
mobile and the base station ,or by movement of the objects
in the channel.
67
−Fading Effect when relative movement between
Transmitter and Receiver
 “Time Varying nature” of the channel in a small-scale region

 “Doppler spread” and “Coherence time” are parameters
which describe the “Time Varying” nature of the channel in
a small-scale region.
No scattered signals Field strength Signal

level
θ
V
t68
− Doppler spread BD
Measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate of
change of the mobile radio channel and is defined as the range of
frequencies over which the received Doppler spectrum is
essentially non-zero.
− Coherence Time
Coherence time Tc of the channel measures the period of time
over which the fading process is correlated
69
−Before going in to details of
Doppler spread & Coherence
Time and Fadings Effects due to
them we will discuss Doppler
Shift
70
Doppler Effect
− When a transmitter or receiver is moving, the
frequency of the received signal changes, i.e. İt
is different than the frequency of transmissin.
This is called Doppler Effect.
− The change in frequency is called “Doppler
Shift”.
 It depends on
• The relative velocity of the receiver with respect
to transmitter
• The frequency (or wavelenth) of transmission
• The direction of traveling with respect to the
direction of the arriving signal.
71
Doppler shift
72
Doppler Shift – Recever is moving
S
d = XY
Λl = SX − SY = d cos θ
Λl = vΛt cos θ
The phase change in the received signal :

Λl 2πvΛt
∆ Φ= 2π = cos θ
λ λ
∆l Doppler shift (The apparent change in frequency) :

1 ∆Φ v
X θ d Y fd = = cosθ
2π ∆t λ
v
A mobile receiver is traveling from point X to point Y
73
− For derivation
 Class Lecture
74
− The relative motion between the base station and the mobile results
in random frequency modulation due to different Doppler shifts on
each of the multipath components.
 Received frequency = fc +/- fd

• + If mobile is moving toward base station.
• - If moving away from base station. f
• fc = frequency of pure or transmitted sinusoid
• fd = Doppler shift S c
θ
V
− The Dopper shift is positive
 If the mobile is moving toward the direction of arrival of the wave
− The Doppler shift is negative

 If the mobile is moving away from the direction of arrival of the
wave. 75
Doppler Shift-Example
− Consider a transmitter which radiates a
sinusoidal carrier frequency of 1850 MHz.
For a vehicle moving 60 mph, compute the
received carrier frequency if the mobile is
moving
 (a) directly towards the transmitter,
 (b) directly away from the transmitter,
 (c) in a direction which is perpendicular to the
direction of arrival of the transmitted signal.
 D) What will be the overall Doppler spread
76
θ v
- Carrier frequency fc = 1850 MHz (i.e. λ = 16.2 cm)

- Vehicle speed v = 60 mph = 26.82 m/s
− Doppler frequency shift : fd = (v / λ ) cos θ ,
77
(d) The overall Doppler Spread is 2(fd)

78
−Vehicle moving at 70 mph relative to a
transmitter. The carrier frequency is
1850 MHz. What is the maximum
Doppler shift?
79
Doppler Shift
80
Doppler Shift
81
01/12/09 Wireless Communications – Wireless Transmission Shahzad Malik 2-81
Fading Overview
82
−Now we will discuss Doppler
spread , Coherence Time and
their relationship
83
Doppler Spread
− The amount of spectral broadening depends on
“fd” which is a function of the relative velocity
of the mobile, and the angle between the
direction of motion of the mobile and direction
of arrival of the scattered waves.
− Doppler frequency shift : fd = (v / λ ) cos θ ,
 where Wavelength λ = c / fc meters
− Doppler Spread BD = fm =Maximum Frequency deviation = v / λ
84
Doppler Spread
− The Doppler shift broadens the spectrum of
the received signal by spreading (smearing)
the basic spectrum in frequency domain
85
Doppler Spread
− Motion of the antenna leads to (time varying) phase
shifts of individual reflected waves. It is not so much
this minor shift that bothers radio system designers, as
a receiver oscillator can easily compensate for it.
Rather, it is the fact that many waves arrive, all with
different shifts. Thus, their relative phases change all
the time, and so it affects the amplitude of the resulting
composite signal. So the Doppler effects determine the
rate at which the amplitude of the resulting composite
signal changes.
− If mobile station (MS) is moving, then different

directions of the MPCs arriving at the Mobile Station
have different frequency shifts. Hence received
spectrum (power vs frequency) will become wider.
86
Doppler Spread
− Doppler spread BD is a
measure of the spectral
broadening caused by the
time rate of change of the
mobile radio channel
− Defined as the range of

frequencies over which the
received Doppler spectrum is
essentially non-zero.
− When a pure sinusoidal tone of

frequency fc is transmitted,
the received signal spectrum,
called the Doppler spectrum,
will have components in the
range fc –fd to fc +fd
(where fd is Doppler shift ) 87
Doppler Spread
− Time variations of the channel due to a
relative motion between transmitter and
receiver lead to a broadening of the signal
spectrum.
− This frequency dispersion can be

characterized by the U-shaped power
spectrum of isotropic scattering.
88
Doppler Spread
− The spectral line of a pure
sine wave will have a power
spectrum as shown in figure
after transmission over the
channel.
− The frequency range where
the power spectrum is
nonzero defines the Doppler
spread BD.
− The reciprocal of BD
approximates the
coherence time Tc of the − Power density spectrum of a
channel. sine wave suffering from a
− If we represent the channel Doppler spread.
influence as an attenuation
of the signal amplitude, Tc
denotes the minimum time
interval between two
decorrelated attenuation
factors. 89
How do systems overcome the Doppler Effect
90
Coherence Time
− Coherence Time is a statistical measure of the time duration over
which the channel impulse response is essentially invariant, and
quantifies the similarity of the channel response at different times.
− Coherence time is the time duration over which two received

signals have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.
− Coherence time measures the time duration over which the

channel characteristics can be considered to static
91
Coherence Time
− The period of time after which the
correlation function of two samples of the
channel response taken at the same
frequency but different time instants drops
below a certain predetermined threshold is
called Coherence time Tc .
 Coherence Time: defines the staticness of the
channel, directly affected by Doppler shift
92
Doppler Spread BD & Coherence Time TC
− Coherence time Tc, is the time domain dual of Doppler
spread
− Coherence Time and Doppler Spread measure the time
variability of the channel
1
Tcα
fm
fm is the max doppler shift
93
Doppler Spread BD & Coherence Time TC
A popular rule to define Coherence time is :
9
Tc =
16π f max
2
 where fm is the maximum Doppler shift
94
Small scale fading
BS
Flat fading
BC
BS
BC
fading
TS
Fast fading TC
Doppler spread
Slow fading TS
TC
95
Fast and Slow Fading Effects
− Velocity of mobile (or velocity of objects in
channel) and base band signals determine
slow fading or fast fading.
 Fast fading (time selective fading)

 Slow fading
96
Fast fading
− In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse
response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration. That is, the coherence time of the
channel is smaller than the symbol period of
the transmitted signal.
− This causes frequency dispersion (also called

time selective fading) due to Doppler
spreading, which leads to signal distortion.
97
Fast fading
− Every channel has a coherence time TC.
− Fast fading occurs for very low data rates.

 Ts (Symbol period) > Tc
 Bs < BD
− Viewed in the frequency domain, signal distortion due

to fast fading increases with increasing Doppler spread
relative to the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
98
Fast fading
− The fading realization changes while a
symbol is propagating �
− Fast Fading results in:

 � Distortion
 � Irreducible error rate.
− In this regime, the amplitude and phase

change imposed by the channel varies
considerably over the period of use
99
Fast fading
− In fast fading the fading de-correlates from
symbol to symbol.
− When the communication receiver decisions

are made based on an observation of the
received signal over two or more symbol
times (such as differentially coherent or
coded communications), it becomes
necessary to consider the variation of the
fading channel from one symbol interval to
the next.
100
Fast fading
− Fast fading only deals with the rate of
change of the channel due to motion
− Fast fading, in practice, occurs for very low
data rates
101
Slow Fading
− The channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted
signal s(t).
− When the symbol duration Ts is much less than TC �
 Ts << Tc
 Bs >> BD
− If the baseband signal bandwidth is much greater than BD, the effects of Doppler
spread are negligible at the receiver.
− In slow fading a particular fade level will affect many successive symbols, which
leads to burst errors,
102
Summary of Fast and Slow Fading Effects
103
Fast & Slow Fading as compared to the terms Large & Small-scale
Fading
− We must not confuse the terms fast and

slow fading with the terms large scale and
small-scale fading.
− It should be emphasized that fast and slow

fading deal with the relationship between
the time rate of change in the channel and
the transmitted signal, and not with
propagation path loss models.
104
Small scale fading
− The four small-scale fading types come from:
 Relative delay in the channel versus data period
 Relative bandwidth of channel versus data bandwidth
− Multipath delay causes time dispersion of

signal and frequency-selective fading
− Doppler shifts cause frequency dispersion

and time-selective fading
105
Small scale fading
BS
Flat fading
BC
BS
BC
fading
TS
Fast fading TC
Doppler spread
Slow fading TS
TC
106

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Wireless - 3.1 (Mobile Radio Propgation Small Scale Path Loss) New

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Small Scale Fading

−In telecommunications, fading is a

− Rapid fluctuations of the amplitude of a

− Invalidates Large-scale path loss

− Existence of several propagation paths between

− Even there is a LoS , multipath still occurs due to

Radio Signals Arriving from different directions to receiver

Receiver may be stationary or mobile.

 Radio waves generated from

 These Multipath components

Simulated Rayleigh Fading

• Presence of reflecting objects and scatterers cause

– With different amplitudes and time delays

 Speed of surrounding objects.

− Two main reasons :

• Multipath time delay spread (Multipath propagation delays )

− Inter Symbol Interference

− Power delay profile

Relative power (dB)

Relative power (dB)

− ISI is usually caused by multipath propagation

− Second Multipath is delayed and is received

− The presence of ISI in the system introduces errors

− In the design of the transmitting and receiving

Inter-symbol interference (ISI)

− PDP gives the intensity of a signal received Pd (τ )

− It is easily measured empirically and can be used to

Mean Excess delay (τ ) = 45 ns

Maximum Excess delay < 10 dB = 110 ns

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Excess Delay (ns)

− Parameters that can be determined from a power

− When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a

− The time difference between the arrival moment of the first

− Maximum Delay after which the received signal

− RMS Delay spread is defined as

 τ 0 = the first arriving signal``

− Bc is a statistical measure of range of frequencies over which the channel

− A statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over which the

− The coherence Bc is the bandwidth for which

Range of freq over

High correlation of amplitude

− The rms delay spread and coherence bandwidth are

− RMS delay spread and coherence

− If the coherence bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth

− If the definition is relaxed so that the frequency

Delay spread figures Delay in

− In general, Spectral Analysis Techniques and

σ τ = 21.07 −(4.38) 2 =1.37µs

− Signal bandwidth for Analog Cellular = 30

− Two main reasons :

• Multipath time delay spread (Multipath propagation delays )

• Nature of the transmitted signal

 “Coherence Bandwidth” and “RMS Delay Spread” gives

− They describe the “Time dispersive nature” of the channel.

− But don't offer information of the “time varying nature” of

 “Time Varying nature” of the channel in a small-

 “Doppler spread” and “Coherence time” are

• Frequency selective fading.

− When the symbol energy duration of a transmitted

− However the strength of the received

− In Frequency domain view, certain