BUSINESS RESEARCH

MODULE -
PRESENTATION


by
Prof. Philip AE Serumaga-Zake
UNISA SBL

27 March 28 March 2014
Role of research in the MBL
programme





The module MBL925R prepares you for the research project that you
have to complete during your final year.

The importance of this individual research project is highlighted by the
fact that it contributes 60% towards your final years marks.
Role of Research in the business
environment

This module (MBL925-R) prepares you to both conduct and critically
evaluate business or market research in your working environment.

Zikmund, et al. (2000) defines business research as the application of the
scientific method in searching the truth about business phenomena. These
activities include defining business opportunities and problems, generating
and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and
organizational performance.

Business research helps to provide managers with the knowledge regarding
their organizations, the market, the economy or any other area of uncertainty,

The concept of scientific research: key
components of the research process
Science: Dfn. by Websters Dictionary Knowledge attained through
study or practice OR knowledge covering general truths of the operation
of general laws, concerned with the physical world.

Purpose of science concerns expansion of knowledge and search for
building theories.

Research Definitions:
A systematic inquiry that provides information for solving a problem.
A methodology in an attempt to describe, explain and change
(improve) human behaviour.
A formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the problem.

The research process is built on three key features: (1) Clearly stated
research questions/objectives to be addressed. (2) A research context
for the questions and a rationale for why it is important that these
questions should be answered or explored. (3) Research methods for
addressing and answering the research questions.

Research starts by the selection of a topic, a domain phenomenon to be
studied.
You may for e.g., be curious about an interesting phenomenon, a problem or
a concern to be addressed; to test some existing theory or to generate new
models or hypothesis.

Steps of the scientific method:
Start from general questions or problems
Narrow down to focus on one specific aspect. A research report generally
begins with an overview of the previous research and real-world
observations, the researcher then states how this led to defining a research
problem.

Design a research study
Collect data
Analyze this aspect
Finally conclude, and
Generalize to the real world.
Choosing a topic

Research starts by the selection of a topic, a domain
phenomenon to be studied.
You may for e.g., be curious about an interesting
phenomenon, a problem to be solved or a concern to be
addressed or you may want to test some existing theory or
you may want to generate new models or hypothesis, for
e.g., to come up with new ideas.

Some points about topics for research:
Topics should not have yes/no answers, they should
preferably provoke a rigorous analytical work..
Topics should not have obvious answers.
When choosing a topic, it should not matter to you what you
find out you must be unbiased and not expect a particular
finding you may be wrong and will need to explain your
results.
Cont. with Choosing a topic
Your topic should have a basis in business or
management.
Your topic should be something you can get
excited about, or at least are interested in.
Particularly with qualitative research, you should
enter the field with an open mind and with no
preconceived ideas.
Your topic should be doable in the time available,
so the scope needs to be carefully defined not
too broad and not too narrow.
Title should not be too long, preferably not more
than 16 words.

Cont. with choosing
Your title should add at least some value or new knowledge to
what is already known it should reflect the research problem
and the scope of the study.

Do not re-invent the wheel or try to cause a revolution in the
scientific community.
Your topic should have a basis in or related to business (i.e.
leadership, business or management science)
The topic you choose should be something you can get
excited about, or at least are interested in.

Cont. with choosing a topic
Practical Problem: You may start off with choosing a broad topic in
a field of study where your passion or expertise lies. Then read
literature around this topic or/and ask your colleagues,
employer, supervisor/lecturer or friends etcetera, to identify all
the practical problems that need to be solved.

OR

After choosing a broad topic in the academic field which you are
interested in, read literature to find out where a knowledge gap
exists, that is, what is still needed to be done or found. The filling
of this gap then will be your contribution to knowledge.


Sources of research topics

Existing Research Reports
Application of an existing theory in a different setting or a different context.
An investigation into whether a particular early theory regarding say, strategy,
leadership, customer relations, diversity management, the financial markets,
globalisation, economic theory etc still applies today.
Exploration of a gap or contradiction in existing theory /research.
An exploration of factors affecting a certain situation, e.g. identification of the
factors promoting the success of small businesses in Adiss Ababa.
Investigating a business problem or issue
Any contemporary or emerging issue in your area of interest, e.g. as reported in
journals.
Ask an academic or lecturer in your area of interest about topics he/she is
researching and perhaps take a portion of that.
Ask your business colleagues, your manager or someone senior in your
organisation, your customers, suppliers or other stakeholders for ideas or
issues/problems being experienced .

What is good research?

Clearly defined purpose, scope, limitations, and precise meaning
of the terms used.

Research procedure should be described in sufficient detail to
enable another researcher to repeat the research, otherwise it will
not be possible to estimate the validity and reliability of the data.

Research design should be planned to yield objective results.
Ethical standards should be fully explained as to how physical or
psychological harm, exploitation, invasion of privacy, and guard the
welfare of the participants and organisation, their clients, their
colleagues, and themselves were taken care of.

Cont. with Good Research
Limitations any flaws should frankly be reported in procedural
design and their
effect on the findings should be estimated.
Adequate analysis appropriate statistical methods should be
applied.
Unambiguous findings should be clear and precise, easily
understood by the decisionmaker.
Conclusions should be limited to those for which the data
provide adequate basis.
Recommendations should be confined to the scope of the study.

Formulating a research problem
Researchers organize their research by formulating and defining a
research problem, which helps them focus the research process so
that they can draw conclusions reflecting the real world in the best
possible way.
The target population should be defined beforehand: Dfn: The
totality of the units studied is the target population.
The research problem is the foundation of the research and
specific objectives drive the scientific process.
A research question can be regarded as a statement of an intellectual
puzzle.

Questions: What exactly do you want to study? What do you want
to know? Why is it worth studying? Significance? For e.g., does it
contribute to the body of knowledge?

Literature Review
Literature review helps you to (Blumberg et al, 2008):
Establish the context of the problem or topic by reference to
previous work
Understand the structure of the problem
Relate theories and ideas to the problem
Identify the relevant variables and relations
Show the reader what has been done previously
Show which theories have been applied to the problem
Show which research designs and methods have been chosen
Rationalise the significance of the problem and the study
presented contribution

Cont. with literature..
Synthesize and gain a new perspective on the problem
Show what needs to be done in the light of the existing
knowledge
Know about the findings of the previous studies done on the
same or a similar topic
Know the methods that were used and can therefore be used in
the current research
Formulate your questions or hypothesis; it can help you not
duplicate the research or to avoid doing it again

Cont. with literature..
Know the research that has been done. When you read the
literature, you may find that there is no reason for doing it
again, if it was done already (ie, the research question may
have been answered already.
Improve on the methods if you find that the methods used in
the previous research were not adequate.

A theory for your topic. Your work must not be a theoretical
study but grounded in appropriate theory.


Cont. with Literature review
The literature review chapter should be well structured, may be
according to the subproblems or subtopics of the research
starting broadly and finishing narrowly (inverted funnel).

Literature should be critically reviewed and discussed
indicating how it relates to the research topic it must be
relevant. It should have a summary or conclusion, indicating a gap
in the literature that will be filled by the suggested research (
making a contribution to the existing body of knowledge).
Avoid plagiarism. Do not quote or cite without acknowledging
the author.


Identifying the concepts to be measured and/or observed that will enable
them to answer a research question - operationalisation

A concept or construct is a generalized idea about a class of objects,
attributes, occurrences or processes that has been given a name (Zikmund, et
al., 2000).
Operationalization is then used to give some indication of the exact definitions
of the variables, and the type of scientific measurements to be used.
Literature review also helps with the test to be used, or the methodology,
and helps the researcher to refine the research process.
Operationalization is to take a concept, such as 'helping behavior', and try to
measure it by specific observations, e.g. how likely are people to help a
stranger with problems.
Operationalization is the process of strictly defining variables into measurable
factors.
The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured,
empirically and quantitatively. Operationalization sets down exact definitions
of each variable, increasing the quality of the results, and improving the
robustness of the design.
It determines how the researchers are going to measure an emotion or concept,
such as the level of distress or aggression.

Operationalization
Operationalization is to take a concept, such as 'helping behavior', and try to
measure it by specific observations, e.g. how likely are people to help a stranger
with problems.
Operationalization is the process of strictly defining variables into measurable
factors.
The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically
and quantitatively. Operationalization sets down exact definitions of each
variable, increasing the quality of the results, and improving the robustness of the
design.
It determines how the researchers are going to measure an emotion or concept,
such as the level of distress or aggression.

The Operational Definitions
The operational definition is the determining of the scalar properties of the
variables.
If a researcher is measuring abstract concepts, such as intelligence, emotions,
and subjective responses, then a system of measuring numerically needs to be
established, allowing statistical analysis and replication.

For e.g., Human responses could be measured with a questionnaire from 1-
strongly disagree, to 5 strongly agree. These measurements are always
subjective, but statistics can be used in analysis.
Such measurements are arbitrary, but allow others to replicate the research.

Fuzzy concepts
Fuzzy concepts are vague ideas, concepts that lack clarity or are only
partially true.
It is important to define the variables to facilitate accurate replication of
the research process.

Example 5
A scientist might propose the hypothesis:
Children grow quicker if they eat vegetables.

What does the statement mean by children?
Are they from America or Africa?
What age are they? Are the children boys or girls?
There are billions of children in the world, so how do you define the
sample groups?

How is growth defined?
Is it weight, height, mental growth or strength? The statement does not
strictly define the measurable, dependent variable.

What does the term quicker mean?
What units, and what timescale, will be used to measure this?
A short-term experiment, lasting one month, may give wildly different
results than a longer-term study.
The frequency of sampling is important for operationalization, too.
If you were conducting the experiment over one year, it would not be
practical to test the weight every 5 minutes, or even every month.
The first is impractical, and the latter will not generate enough
analyzable data points.

What are vegetables?
There are hundreds of different types of vegetable, each containing
different levels of vitamins and minerals.
Are the children fed raw vegetables, or are they cooked?
How does the researcher standardize diets, and ensure that the children
eat their greens?
The above hypothesis is not a bad statement, but it needs clarifying and
strengthening, a process called operationalization.

The researcher could narrow down the range of children, by specifying age, sex,
nationality, or a combination of attributes.
As long as the sample group is representative of the wider group, then the
statement is more clearly defined.
Growth may be defined as height or weight.
The researcher must select a definable and measurable variable, which will form
part of the research problem and hypothesis.

Quicker would be redefined as a period of time, and stipulate the frequency of
sampling.
The initial research design could specify three months or one year, giving a
reasonable time scale and taking into account time and budget restraints.
Each sample group could be fed the same diet, or different combinations of
vegetables.
The researcher might decide that the hypothesis could revolve around vitamin C
intake, so the vegetables could be analyzed for the average vitamin content.
Alternatively, a researcher might decide to use an ordinal scale of measurement,
asking subjects to fill in a questionnaire about their dietary habits.
In this way, the fuzzy concept has undergone a period of operationalization, and the
hypothesis takes on a testable format.
Ontology and epistemology
Ontological: How people view the world. Assumptions about how
the world is made up and the nature (being) of things.

Lee Barron Dfn: A concept concerned with the existence of, and
relationship between different aspects of society, such as social
actors, cultural norms and social structures.

Ontology deals with questions pertaining to the kinds of things
that exist within society. E.g., The existence of patriarchal social
relations and the negative implications these have for women.




Cont. with ontology.
Epistemology has to do with our beliefs about how one might
discover knowledge about the world.

Epistemology deals with the issue of knowledge, and specifically,
who can supply the required valid information

In social research, whilst epistemological issues are concerned with
the question of what is or what should be regarded as acceptable
knowledge, ontological issues are concerned with the nature of
social bodies or entities.


Cont. with ontology
The ontological principles underpinning quantitative research belong to
that branch of social thought dubbed the objectivist perspective such as
positivism, within which, the ontological nature of society is based upon
the view that society is a separate entity, existing quite distinctly from
the social actors that comprise a given society.

Ontological assumptions, in social research, research is guided by the
desire to investigate the differing ways in which social actors are
constantly interpreting the social world from their own particular
perspective.

Note: Ontology and epistemology assumptions guide the research
methodology to use.

Research design

A master plan that specifies the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing the needed information.
A framework or plan of action for the research.


Choosing an appropriate research
methodology: Quantitative approach versus
qualitative approach:
Which Research Method to choose? What design you choose depends on
following factors:
What information do you want?
Feasibility
How reliable should the information be?
Is it ethical to conduct the study?
The cost of the design

The selection of the research method is crucial for what conclusions you can
make about a phenomenon.
It affects what you can say about the cause and factors influencing the
phenomenon.
It is also important to choose a research method which is within the limits of what
the researcher can do.
Time, money, feasibility, ethics and availability to measure the phenomenon
correctly are examples of issues constraining the research.
Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of
human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior.

In qualitative research;
Smaller but focused samples are more often needed, rather than
large random samples.
Purposive sampling is normally used to have key informants in the
sample.
Data analysis use nonstatistical methods and approaches to
analysis are holistic and contextual.
In quantitative research, statistical methods are used to test
hypotheses.
Examples
Some methods are better suited to the study of certain questions than others.
Some methods might be clearly inappropriate to your research question.

Example i
Consider for example the case of a researcher interested in studying the influence
of Nazism and neo-Nazism on racial attacks in the UK.
This research problem might be studied by sending a questionnaire or doing
interviews to researchers and historians of Nazism on the roots of neo-Nazism.
This would be an empirical approach to the research problem/question.
Alternatively one could read and analyse the writings of historians and
come-up with some new or innovative interpretation on the roots of neo-
Nazism.
This would not be an empirically-based approach because one is not generating
data, one is analysing and studying data produced by others and based on that
data one produces a theory or a model.

These methods will allow us to trace the influence of Nazism on neo-Nazism
but they will not allow us to investigate the second part of the question i.e.
racial attacks in the U.K.
Field research through either participant or non-participant observation might be
a more appropriate method to answer this angle of the research question.

Example ii
Let us assume that you are interested in studying the effect of prolonged exposure
in battle-trenches on the health of survivors of battles during WWI.
Although in theory you could study this research question by interviewing
survivors, in practical terms this method is hardly possible because most
survivors are now too old to remember, or most survivors of particular battles
are now dead.
If you had studied that question 50 years ago, you could have in fact interviewed
people, now however, that method is hardly appropriate.
An alternative method to interviews in this particular case would be the analysis
of other sources of data, like diaries of survivors, letters of survivors, letters
and records of medical personnel that treated wounded soldiers etc.

Something that must be realized when choosing a research method is that your
chosen method is also your way of generating data.
Ser.
No.
Quantitative Assumptions Qualitative - Assumptions
Creswell
1

2


3


4


5
Ontological: a single objective world

Epistemological: independence from
variables under study

Axiological: act in a value-free and
unbiased manner

Rhetorical: Most often use impersonal,
formal and rule-based text

Tends to apply deduction, limited cause-
effect relationships and context free
methods
Multiple subjectively derived realities can
exist
Researchers must interact with their studied
phenomena

Overtly act in a value-laden and biased
fashion

Use personalized, informal and context-
based language

Tends to apply induction, multivariate and
multiprocess interaction and context
specific methods
Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research (see Lee)
Cassell and Symon
Numbers or quantification bias towards counting



Often seeks objective (or less biased) and freely
calibrated descriptions
- Researchers favor a more detached, impersonal
orientation to data

More rule driven
- Enter with relatively clear mental models to
follow
- Usually want to anticipate and eliminate
problems before they occur, say thru research
design

Focus more on predicting outcomes and less on
process variables

A more context-free
- More generalizable


Less explicit about participants reaction
No numbers or interpretation
- Endeavor to describe organizational phenomena
- Counting only if necessary

Researchers explicitly and overtly apply their own
subjective interpretation
- Personal investment in the data


Maximally responsive to the constraints imposed by
their immediate situation and empirical data
- Prefer to have the maximal degree of flexibility




Focus more on understanding organizational processes
and less on predicting outcomes

Heavily grounded within local context in which the
phenomena of interest occur
- Generalization is problematic

More explicit about participants reaction
- Recognize and integrate the effects of the research
process itself into the studys results
Kvale
Involve more intensive calibration of
organizational parts and its analysis
include at least equal interval scaling



Better suited to questions of differences
in degree within and across these
categorical states
Most often focus on the identification of
meaningful categories (or parts) of
organizational phenomena
- Often involve content analysis and
nominal or ordinal calibration

Best suited to questions concerning
differences in categorical states

Other differences:
Quantitative research is better suited to theory testing and qualitative research is better
suited to theory creation
Note: there are exceptions. E.g. factor analysis can be used to generate theories

Summary
Qualitative research is often taken to mean inductive, theory generating, subjective and
nonpositivist.
Quantitative research is often taken to mean deductive, theory testing, objective and
positivist.
Both approaches can be used in a study. E.g. Quantitative study followed by a qualitative
study for deeper and richer information.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Seeks to understand peoples meanings placed on their living
experiences (Cooper & Schindler, 2008)

Requires techniques that delve deeply into peoples hidden
interpretation, understandings and motivations.

Designed to tell the researcher how (process) and why (meaning)
things happen as they do
Cont. Qualitative research: the
research process
1. Discover the management dilemma

2. Define the management question

3. Define the research question This may involve an
exploratory study (including: literature review, organisational
records, interviewing experts and info gatekeepers)

Example (from Cooper &
Schindler)
Management dilemma: Increasing no. Of letters & phone
complaints about post purchase services

Management question: What should be done to improve
product repairs & service?

Research question: Should the technical support operators be
given more intensive training? Or Should the repair diagnostic
& repair sequencing operations be modified/s
Cont. Research process
Then, formulate investigative questions that will help to
answer the research question. E.g., what the manager feels
he/she needs to know to arrive at a conclusion about the
management dilemma
Then, formulate measurement questions. These are the
questions participants in the research area asked (say in a
questionnaire) or what specifically is observed in a research
study
Then, a research design is made. a blue print for fulfilling the
study objectives & answering the research question. E.g., a
secondary data study, case study, survey, field experiment, etc.

Cont. The research process
Techniques used are for e.g., focus groups, individual in-depth
interviews, ethnography, grounded theory, action research,
case study and observation.

Sources of data:
- People (individuals or groups)
- Organisation or institution
- Texts (published)
- Settings & environments
- Objects, artefacts, media products
- Events & happenings
Qualitative research designs

Qualitative research produces in-depth and comprehensive
information.
It uses subjective information and participant observation or
nonparticipant observation to describe the context, or natural
setting, of the variables under consideration, as well as the
interactions of the different variables in the context.
It seeks a wide and deep understanding of the entire situation.
The problem with qualitative research is that the very subjectivity
of the inquiry leads to difficulties in establishing the reliability and
validity of the strategies and information. It is very difficult to
prevent or detect researcher induced bias.

Cont. with Research design
Its scope is limited due to the in-depth and comprehensive data
gathering approaches required.
There are several different strategies that can be used but they all
focus on phenomena in their natural settings in the real world
and involve studying the phenomena in all their complexities,
multifaceted and all their dimensions.
The researcher must keep his or her perceptions, impressions and
biases to him or herself. What matters is to get the truth.





Delimitation of the scope of a
research study


Delimitations are used to narrow the scope of the study.

State what will be included and what will be excluded, e.g. your
research topic may focus on a specific market sector, organisation
type, level of employees in an organisation, methodology, etc.

The sample that you plan to use may be drawn from a specific
geographical area (e.g. Gauteng),
Ethical Issues
Due to the subjective nature of data collection, interpretation, and
analysis in qualitative research, there appear to be more ethical
dilemmas and concerns with confidentiality associated with qualitative
research than with quantitative research.

It is the researcher's ethical responsibility to maintain confidentiality

The deception of respondents by researchers is an ethical issue in
ethnographic studies. For e.g., in a study of people living in homeless
shelters, a researcher may become a participant, interacting with
residents while giving them the impression that he/she too is homeless.


Cont. Ethical Issues
Diversity

To enhance the validity of results in research with diverse
populations, research questions must be clearly constructed and
must not be subject to different cultural interpretations.

Also, due to the subjective nature of qualitative research it is
important for the researcher to continually engage in self-
examination to be certain that his or her own biases and
stereotypes are not influencing the interpretation of the
findings.

Sampling
Non-probability sampling: This includes all methods of sampling in
which the probability of selection of population elements is unknown or
undeterminable.

With these methods, no indication of possible bias and of the error
bounds of estimates in respect of population characteristics can be done.

But this does not imply that good results cannot be obtained. The
problem is that the user is unable to give any indication of the reliability
of the results that have been obtained. They can somehow also, though
rarely, be generalized to the population.

Cont. Sampling
Social science is often conducted in situations where you cannot
select the kind of probability samples used in large scale surveys.

For e.g., if you wanted to study street children in JHB. There is no
list of these children. It is almost impossible to create such a list.
In addition to that, there are times when probability sampling
would not be appropriate even if it were possible.
Examples are; Judgmental non probability sampling or purposive,
snowball and quota.

Convenient Sampling

Obtaining people or units that are conveniently available
E.g. it would be more convenient and economical to set up an
interviewing booth from which to intercept consumers at a
shopping mall.

A lecturer using his/her students for a research study

Note: Projecting or generalizing to the results beyond the specific
sample is inappropriate.

Judgment or Purposive sampling

A non probability sampling procedure when an experienced researcher
selects the sample based on his/her judgment about some appropriate
characteristic required of the sample member.

Researchers select samples that satisfy their specific purpose even if
they are not fully representative

E.g., CPI is based on a judgment sample of market basket items
A fashion manufacturer selects a sample of key accounts that it believes
are capable of providing information needed to predict sales
Can be used to predict election results

Quota Sampling

Probability sampling may underrepresent or overrepresent
certain subgroups in the population

The researcher may wish to ensure that certain subgroups are
included proportionately to the sample

The purpose is to ensure that the various subgroups in a
population are represented on pertinent sample characteristics to
the exact extent that the investigator desires
He/she has a quota to achieve

Cont. Quota sampling
Advantages:

Speed of data collection, lower costs and convenience
Carefully selected data collections may provide a representative
sample of the various subgroups within a population

May be appropriate if the researcher knows that certain
demographic group is more likely to refuse to cooperate with a
survey

Snowball Sampling

Involve using a probability sampling for an initial selection of
respondents and then obtaining additional respondents through
information provided by the initial respondents

Used to locate members of rare population by referrals

Bias is likely to occur because the person suggested by someone
also in the sample has a higher probability of being similar to the
first person
Data collection
For Qualitative researchers: E.g., Approaches in collecting data:
grounded theory, ethnography and phenomenology.
Methods: e.g., Observation, and interviewing and focus group
discussion.
Forms of the data collected: interviews and group discussions,
observation and reflection field notes, various texts, pictures, and
other materials.
Qualitative research often categorizes data into patterns as the
primary basis for organizing, interpreting and reporting results.
Quantitative research: scientific experiments or surveys to collect
primary data or use already collected (and processed) data called
secondary data in their studies.
Methods of Data Collection
Data Collection
Methods include interviews and focus group discussions, observation
(Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation), field notes, various
texts, pictures, and other materials, Structured Interview, Unstructured
Interview, Analysis of documents and materials.
Observations (Key, 1997)
In qualitative research, observations are intentionally unstructured and
free-flowing.
Very flexible.

Draw backs are:
Observation can be time wasting for a novice researcher recording
even irrelevant information.
The presence of an interviewer may bias the data collected
Written notes are always insufficient to capture the richness of the
phenomenon, yet audiotapes and videotapes are not always completely
dependable either because their presence may make participants
uncomfortable.
Systematically seeks out and organizes data concerning what is being
studied based on a social science theory and methodology rather than
focusing on achieving a situationally defined goal.
Keeps detailed records of what occurs, including those things
characteristically taken for granted.
Periodically detaches self from the situation to review records from the
neutral position of a social scientist.
Constantly monitors observations and records for evidence of personal bias
or prejudice.
Participant Observation

The researcher should control his reactions or emotions. The purpose of the
interview is to find out what views people hold; their views should be
unbiased by evaluative responses on the researchers part.
The researcher should choose an interview environment and conditions in
which the participants feel comfortable, secure, and at ease enough to speak
openly about their point of view.
The researcher should avoid presenting "yes" or "no" questions which tend
to stifle detail.
The researcher should be flexible in his or her approach to the informants.
Group interviews can be useful, particularly in initial interviews.
The researcher should consider to what degree the interview questioning is
"recursive." As applied to interviewing, what has been said in an interview
is used to determine or define further questioning.
Interviewing
Interview
To ask about events, the interviewer must be aware that participants
rely on their memories, which may bring in distortions.
Interviews are either open-ended or semi structured revolving around
a few central questions.
To conduct a focus group, researchers gather several people less that
10 or 12 to discuss a particular issue for 1 or 2 hours.
When conducting a focus group discussion, make sure that no one
dominates the discussion and keep people focused.

Focus groups are useful when:
Time is limited
People feel more comfortable talking in a group than alone
Interaction among participants may be more informative than
individually conducted interview.
Researcher is having difficult interpreting what he/she observes.
When interviewing, both parties, the interviewer and the interviewee must be
on equal footing and there must be mutual trust between them.
Cont. with interview
Unstructured interviews
o No set format but interviewer may have questions formulated in
advance
o Friendly conversation provided you know what to look for,
informal, open ended, flexible and free flowing.
o Questions can be changed or adapted to meet the respondents
intelligence or belief.
o Interview schedule/guide may be used.
o Lack of reliability of a structured interview

Semi-structured interviews combination of unstructured and
structured interviews
Structured interviews


Commonly employed in survey research
Standardized interviews, Exactly same (closed ended) Questions in the
same order. Open ended questions may also be included.
Limited time and financial resources may lead some qualitative
researchers to pursue other data collection techniques, such as a
structured interview schedule with open-ended questions.

Drawing on the theoretical and research literature, such questions may
be formulated and organized in advance to address a specific research
topic.

Interviewers are expected to take field notes or to keep a field diary of
observations made during the interview.

For focus groups, key informants are interviewed. It involves a
moderator to facilitate a small group discussion between selected
individuals on a particular topic.

This is a popular method in market research and testing new initiatives
with users/workers.
When to choose Qualitative Research
Qualitative research serves the following purposes:

Descriptive reveal nature of certain situations, settings, processes,
relationships, system or people.
Interpretation to gain new insights about a phenomenon, develop
new concepts and theoretical perspectives, etc., and discover the
problem that exists within the phenomenon.
Verification it allows the researcher to test the validity of certain
assumptions, claims, theories or generalizations within the real world.
Evaluation a means through which a researcher can judge the
effectiveness of a particular policy, practice or innovation.

Qualitative Research Designs (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005)
Case study, Ethnography, Phenomenological, Grounded theory, and
Content analysis

We dig deep to get a complete understanding of the
phenomenon.
We collect different forms of data and examine them
from various angles to construct a rich and meaningful
picture of a complex, multifaceted situation.

Brief notes on the Research Designs
Case Study
A particular event, programme or individual studied in depth.
e.g., a medical researcher studying the nature, course and
treatment of a rare illness.

Focuses on a single case - can be generalized to similar
situations.
May focus on 2 or 3 cases to make comparisons, build a
theory or propose generalization.
Case study design
Purpose understanding a complex issue or object
Emphasizes detailed contextual analysis of a limited number
of events, or conditions and their relationships.
Dfn. Yin defines a case study method as an empirical inquiry
that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-
life context, when the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident, and in which multiple sources
of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p.23).
Case studies are detailed investigations of individuals, groups, institutions
or other social units. The researcher conducting a case study attempts to
analyze the variables relevant to the subject under study (Hungler & Polit,
1983).

The principle difference between case studies and other research studies
is that the focus of attention is the individual case and not the whole
population of cases.

Most studies search for what is common and pervasive. However, in the
case study, the focus may not be on generalization but on understanding
the particulars of that case in its complexity. A case study focuses on a
bounded system, usually under natural conditions, so that the system
can be understood in its own habitat (Stake, 1995; 1988).

Method
Extensive data, Observation, Interviews, Documents, etc, Past records
Audiovisual materials (photographs, video tapes, audio tapes)
The researcher may spend extended period of time on the site and interact
with the participants.
Cont. with case study..: steps
1. Determine and Define the research question
Establish the focus and purpose of the study
2. Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis
techniques
Must determine whether to study cases which are unique in some
way or cases which are considered typical and may select cases to
represent a variety of geographical regions, etc.
Multiple sources of data and techniques must be used
Multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources are needed to
uncover convergent lines of inquiry.
Data collection is largely qualitative but may also be quantitative.
Tools of data collection may include surveys, interviews, documents,
observation and physical artefact's.
Cont. with case study steps
3. Collect data in the field
4. Evaluate and analyse data
Triangulate to strengthen research findings and conclusion
Categorise, tabulate, use flow charts and recombine data o
address the initial proposition or purpose of the study.
Cross-case search for patterns
Conclude answering questions how and why.
5. Prepare the report

More about Data analysis
Organizing of details about the case
Categorizing of data cluster into meaningful groups
Interpretation of single instances specific documents, occurrences
Identification of patterns underlying themes characterizing the case
more broadly
Synthesis and generalization an overall portrait of the case is
constructed. Conclusion and implication beyond the case.
The researcher must look for convergence from a triangulated study,
that is, separate pieces of data must point to the same conclusion.

More about Writing the Report
In report writing, the researcher records details about the context surrounding the
case, that is, information about the physical environment and historical, economic
and social factors that have a bearing on the situation.

This helps other researchers who read the report draw conclusions about the
extent of generalization to other situations.
Rationale worthiness of in-depth study and contribution about the real
world.
Detailed description of the facts related to the case
Description of data collected, i.e., What observations, whom
interviewed, what documents examined, etc.
Discussion of the patterns found any trends, themes, personality
characteristics, etc. You have to convince the reader by also describing
contradictory information as well.

Must be as complete and unbiased as possible
A connection to the larger scheme of things. In what way does the case
study contribute to the knowledge about some aspects of the human
experience?
Compare to previous studies, etc.
Ethnographic design
Dfn. Ethnography from Greek, ethnos folk/people and grapho = to
write
A qualitative research design used to explore cultural phenomena
culture of people.
The purpose is to describe and interpret the shared and learnt patterns
of values, behaviours, beliefs and language of a culture sharing group.
Resulting research report reflects the knowledge and the system of
meanings in the lives of a cultural group.
It was pioneered in the biological, social and cultural branches of
Anthropology now it has popular in Social sciences, especially
Sociology and Communication.
A typical ethnographic study is a holistic study including a brief history,
climate and habitat from the point of view of the subject.

Cont. with Ethnography
The researcher looks at the entire group that shares a common culture
in depth.
Natural setting
Length of time period even up to several years.
Focus is on everyday behaviours (e.g. interactions, language, rituals)
with an intent to identify:
Cultural norms
Beliefs
Social structures
Other cultural patterns.
Mainly done in sociology, psychology and education.

Method
Site based field work
Prolonged engagement with people to observe and record processes..
Better when the researcher is a stranger to avoid bias
To gain entry the researcher often go through a gatekeeper such as a tribal
chief, the person who can provide a smooth entrance into the site.

The researcher must be open about why he/she is there.
Initially, the researcher uses a big net approach, intermingling with
everyone and getting an overall sense of the cultural context.

Gradually he identifies key informants to provide relevant information.
Participant observation can do; the disadvantage however is that the
researcher can become emotionally involved and lose the ability to
assess the situation accurately.

Throughout the field work he/she must be a careful observer,
interviewer and listener while taking extensive field notes.
Lengthy conversations and significant events can be recorded using
audiotapes or videotapes.
Can also collect artifacts and records e.g. accounting ledgers.
Great patience and tolerance and being sociable are necessary.
Data Analysis
Descriptive Data organized into logical structures
Describing events in chronological order
Describing a typical day in the life of the group or an individual

Focusing on a critical event
Developing a story, with plots and characters.
Analysis data categorized according to their meanings, patterns,
regularities and critical events identified.

Interpretation The general nature of the culture is inferred from the
categories of meanings and patterns identified.
Existing theoretical frameworks may help

Note: Total objectivity is impossible.

Report writing
Often personal, literary narrative designed to engage the readers attention
and interest. It Includes:
Introduction rationale and context.
Present your research question
Describe the nature of the study
Importance of the study
A description of the setting and methods used
Describe the group and systems and rituals, the name of the place, etc.
An analysis of the culture studied
Describe the patterns and themes observed, norms and conventions for
behaviour, the social hierarchy, belief system.
Present evidence to support your claim

Use the participants actual words

Conclusion
Relate findings to the research question and concepts and theories in the
discipline
Avoid making judgments, (even small changes in the wording can make a
significant difference in this regard).
Should be sufficiently detailed.

Phenomenological research design
Purpose To describe or explain phenomena thru how people
perceive them.
Done by gathering deep information and perceptions of subjects
thru inductive, qualitative methods such as interviews, focus
groups, discussions/conversations and participant observation,
action research, etc.
Powerful for understanding subjective experience, gaining
insights into peoples motivations and actions.
Particularly effective at bringing to the fore the experiences and
perceptions of individuals from their own perspectives.
Refers to a persons perception of the meaning of an event.
Attempts to understand peoples perceptions, perspectives and
understandings of a particular situation. E.g. experiences of people
caring for a dying relative, living in abusive relationship.
By looking at multiple perspectives, on the same situation the
researcher can make some generalization.

Method
Carefully selected sample of participants
Lengthy interview e.g., 1 or 2 hrs.
Often very unstructured

The researcher listens closely as participants describe their daily
experiences related to the phenomenon.
Typically an interview tool like informal conversation - as participants do
most of the talking.
Cont. with phenomenological design
Data analysis
To identify common themes:

Steps:
identify statements that relate to the topic
The researcher breaks information into small segments (e.g., phrases
or sentences) that each reflects a single, specific thought.
Group statements into meaning units categories.
Seek divergent perspectives
Construct a composite
Develop overall description of the phenomenon or peoples experience.
The focus is on common themes.

Research report
No specific structure
Present your research problem or question
Describe the methods used for data collection and analysis
Draw conclusions
Relate your findings to an existing body of theory and research.
Discuss any practical implications of the findings.

Grounded theory research design
Least likely to start from a particular theoretical framework
Major purpose of this approach is to begin with the data and use
them to develop a theory.
Term grounded gives an idea that the theory is derived from and
grounded in data collected in the field rather than taken from literature.
Focuses on a process related to a particular topic, with ultimate goal of
developing a theory about that process.

Method
Field based
Interviewing, observations, documents, etc are used
Data collected must include the perspectives and voices of the people
being investigated.

Cases are selected by a sampling process in which the researcher
identifies new cases that are similar to previous cases.
When these cases generate no new insights, the process is repeated
with newly selected cases that yield different insights again until no new
insights are noted.
Data analysis
Categorize to classify the data
Identify interrelationships
Data analyzed may lead to later data collection for revision.
Theory developed includes numerous concepts and interrelationships.
The theory is written in the form of a verbal statement, visual model or
series of hypotheses explaining the phenomenon.

The research report
A description of the research question
A review of the related literature
A description of the methodology and data analysis done
A presentation of your theory
A discussion of implications
Show how your theory is similar or dissimilar to existing theory
Explain how it is related to existing body of knowledge
Give implications

Content analysis
A detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular
body of material for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes or
biases.
Used in a wide range of disciplines.
Can be used with another approach

Method
identify the specific body of material to be studied
a random sample may be used
Define the characteristics or qualities to be examined in precise,
concrete terms.
You may break down items of a complex material into small,
manageable segments to be analyzed separately.
Scrutinize the material
When the material is entirely objective, one single judgment is enough,
but if subjective, more judgments, may be, 2 or 3 are required, and then
a composite of the judgments is used.
Data analysis
Tabulate the frequencies of each characteristic found implying the use
of both quantitative and qualitative approaches.
Appropriate statistical analysis can then be done on the frequencies to
interpret the data as they reflect on the research problem.

Research reporting
Describe the body of the material and sampling procedure used
Give a precise definition and description of the characteristics you
looked for.
Describe the coding or rating procedure used
Tabulation and graphing report the frequencies and percentages
obtained.
Give a description of the patterns and trends that the data reflected.
How to analyse qualitative data
It depends upon the type of questions used.
Analyzing results for a case study tends to be more opinion based than
statistical methods.
The usual idea is to try and collate your data into a manageable form
and construct a narrative around it.
Use examples in your narrative whilst keeping things concise and
interesting.
It is always a good idea to assume that a person reading your research
may not possess a lot of knowledge of the subject so try to write
accordingly.
Unlike a scientific study which deals with facts, a case study is based on
opinion and is very much designed to provoke reasoned debate.
There really is no right or wrong answer in a case study.
For multiple choice questions it is a matter of counting up the answers to
each question and using statistics for analysis.
Rating type question require a little more work but the follow broadly the
same principle.
For opinion questions, you can devise some way of judging the
responses numerically.
The next step is to devise which statistical test you are going to use.
Research Implications or Recommendations
The final stage is the researchers recommendations based upon the
results.
This area of the research process can be based around the researchers
personal opinion, and will integrate previous studies.
It is critical in determining the direction taken by the scientific community,
but the researcher will have to justify their findings.

Summary
The key to drawing a valid conclusion is to ensure that the deductive and
inductive processes are correctly used, and that all steps of the scientific
method were followed.
If your research had a robust design, questioning and scrutiny will be
devoted to the conclusion, rather than the methods.
What has been learnt?
Generally, a researcher will summarize what they believe has been
learned from the research, and will try to assess the strength of the
hypothesis.
Even if the null hypothesis is accepted, a strong conclusion will analyze
why the results were not as predicted.
In observational research, with no hypothesis, the researcher will analyze
the findings, and establish if any valuable new information has been
uncovered.

Future Research
Very few studies give clear-cut results, and most research uncovers more
questions than answers.
The researcher can use these to suggest interesting directions for further
study.
If, for e.g., the null hypothesis was accepted, there may still have been
trends apparent within the results.
These could form the basis of further study, or study refinement and
redesign.


Descriptive research designs
A descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves
observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it
in any way.
Many scientific disciplines, especially social science and psychology,
use this method to obtain a general overview of the subject.

Some subjects cannot be observed in any other way; for example, a
social case study of an individual subject is a descriptive research
design and allows observation without affecting normal behavior.

It is also useful where it is not possible to test and measure the large
number of samples needed for more quantitative types of study.
It is also used by market researchers to judge the habits of customers,
or by companies wishing to judge the morale of staff.
The results from a descriptive research can in no way be used as a
definitive answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
Advantages
The subject is being observed in a completely natural and
unchanged natural environment.
A good example of this would be an anthropologist who
wanted to study a tribe without affecting their normal
behavior in any way.

Descriptive research is often used as an exploratory study to
more quantitatively research designs, the general overview
giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth
testing quantitatively.

Disadvantages
Because there are no variables manipulated, there is no way
to statistically analyze the results.
Many scientists regard this type of study as very unreliable
and unscientific.

More on Qualitative research designs
Qualitative research design is a research method used extensively by
researchers studying human behavior and habits.

Qualitative research is often regarded as a precursor to quantitative research, in
that it is often used to generate possible leads and ideas which can be used to
formulate a realistic and testable hypothesis.

This hypothesis can then be comprehensively tested and mathematically
analyzed, with standard quantitative research methods.

Design
The design of qualitative research is probably the most flexible of the various
research techniques.
There is no standardized structure.

Case studies and survey designs are the most commonly used
methods.
Advantages
Qualitative techniques are extremely useful when a subject is too
complex to be answered by a simple yes or no hypothesis.
These types of designs are much easier to plan and carry out.
Qualitative research methods are not as dependent upon sample sizes
as quantitative methods. Normally, small sample sizes are used.

Disadvantages
Whilst not as time or resource consuming as quantitative experiments,
qualitative methods require a lot of careful thought and planning, to
ensure that the results obtained are as accurate as possible.
Qualitative data cannot be mathematically analyzed in the same
comprehensive way as quantitative results, so can only give a guide to
general trends.

It is a lot more open to personal opinion and judgment.
Any qualitative research design is usually unique and cannot be exactly
recreated, meaning that they do lack the ability to be peer reviewed.
Data analysis of qualitative data in
general
Interview questions and responses are typically tape-recorded and then
transcribed verbatim before analysis is begun.

Qualitative researchers often categorize data into patterns as the
primary basis for organizing and reporting results.

Transcription is extremely time-consuming (Marlow, 1993). Due to the
large amount of data that can be generated in qualitative research, a data
reduction process must be used to aid analysis.

This procedure includes: organizing the data; identifying emerging
themes, categories, and patterns; and testing hypotheses against the
data.
Cont. Data analysis

We categorise the data and derive themes, patterns and
trends.
Alternatively, we analyse it narratively with interesting
quotes of the respondents.
Content analysis can also be used.

The relevant theories and literature help the researcher to
do the interpretation. Then, discussion of the results and
conclusions follow. This is the stage when the researcher
reflects on the research problem and objectives and sees
whether the objectives are achieved and the research
question is answered.
Then recommendations are made.

Either indigenous or analyst-constructed typologies may be
constructed.
In indigenous categories, the language of respondents is used to label
types of processes (Marshall & Rossman, 1989; Patton, 1990).
In analyst-constructed categories, the researcher attaches a label to
observed recurring events.

Narrative descriptions of data collected through interviews, observations,
and case records are also used in qualitative analysis.

Content analysis is often used in qualitative and quantitative research
methods.

Some researchers view content analysis as a technique to quantify
manifest (surface-level) descriptive data (Allen-Meares, 1985), in which
categories are developed, content is coded, and category counts are
conducted.

Qualitative content analysis typically does not transform the content into
numeric patterns; instead, recurrent themes, and typologies and
illustrations of particular issues, are used.
The following are interpretive techniques:

Observer impression
The most common analysis of qualitative data is observer impression.
Expert or bystander observers examine the data, interpret it via forming an
impression and report their impression in a structured and sometimes
quantitative form.

Coding
Helps to interpret the data by organizing the data and providing a
means to introduce the interpretations of it into certain quantitative
methods.
In most cases, coding requires the analyst to read the data and
demarcate segments within it.

Each segment is labeled with a code usually a word or short phrase
that suggests how the associated data segments inform the research
objectives.
When coding is complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix of:
summarizing the prevalence of codes, discussing similarities and
differences in related codes across distinct original sources/contexts, or
comparing the relationship between one or more codes.
Computer programmes can assist in this regard.

The criticism of the coding method is that coding seeks to transform
qualitative data into quantitative data, thereby reducing the detail (i.e. its
variety, richness and individual character).
Careful definition of the codes and linking them to the underlying data
can address this concern.

Recursive abstraction
Some qualitative datasets are analyzed without coding.

Datasets are summarized, those summaries are then further summarized,
and so on.

The end result is a more compact summary that would have been difficult
to accurately portray.
The common criticism of this method is that the final conclusions are
several times removed from the underlying data such that poor initial
summaries will yield an inaccurate final report.

What researchers do is to document the reasoning behind each
summary step and cite examples from the data where statements were
included and where statements were excluded from the intermediate
summary.

Mechanical techniques
The researcher uses a computer to scan and sort large sets of qualitative
data by counting the same words or phrases within the data.

This technique is particularly suitable for datasets that are too large for
a human to effectively analyze, or where analysis would be cost
prohibitive relative to the value of information they contain.
The criticism of the technique is the absence of a human interpreter.
Threats to internal validity in
qualitative research

In qualitative studies, the researcher is the data collection
instrument. That is, the researcher conducts (1) observations of
individuals in naturalistic settings, taking extensive notes about
events, and (2) in-depth interviews of participants.

Two major potential threats to internal validity, therefore, are (1)
data collector characteristics and (2) data collector bias. E.g.,
gender, age, ethnicity, language patterns or other characteristics
may influence the nature of the data that is obtained if the
characteristics are related to variables that are the focus of the
study.

Cont. with threats.
Data collector bias refers to the unconscious distortion of data
during the data collection process.
Examples include phrasing questions in different ways for different
individuals, and asking leading questions.
In studies in which interviews are the primary data source, the
researcher should standardise the procedures.

Cont. with threats.
This includes:

asking the questions of all participants in the same way,
put the interviewees at ease by asking a general, easy-to-answer
question first,
conduct all interviews in a location in which the individual feels
comfortable, and
to assure the interviewee that their particular answers cannot be
identified with them.

Cont. with threats
To enhance the credibility of the data, one general strategy
suggested is that of triangulation. The process consists of four
techniques used in data collection and analysis:

Implement multiple methods for obtaining data (eg, interviews,
documents and observations)
Consult multiple data sources (eg, interview teachers, students
and staff)
Use more than one researcher to collect the data
Rely on additional researchers for analyses

Cont. with threats.
Validity as concluded is not always accepted by others and perhaps
rightly so. Typical reasons why it may not be accepted include:
Inappropriate selection of constructs or measures.
Insufficient data collected to make valid conclusions.
Too great a variation in data.
Inadequate selection of target subjects.
Complex interaction across constructs.
Subjects giving biased answers or trying to guess what they
should say.
Research lacking rigour.


Forms of validity

(a) Content validity of a measuring instrument is the extent to which it
provides
- adequate coverage of the investigative (or sub-questions) questions.
- representative sample.
This form of validity can be addressed through a careful definition of the
research topic, the items to be scaled and the scale to be used, and/or by
using a panel of judges.
(b) Criterion-related validity the degree to which the predictor is
adequate in capturing the relevant aspects of the criterion.
(c) Construct validity to measure the presence of abstract-characteristics
for which no empirical validation is possible.
E.g., attitude scales, and aptitude and personality tests. To evaluate it, we
consider theory and the measuring instrument being used.

How to improve validity (i.e.,
credibility and/or dependability)

Validity concerns quality, rigour and trustworthiness. It addresses
whether your research explains or measures what you said you
would be measuring or explaining.
Appropriateness of the method used to answer the research
question. Your analysis has to have rigour, which is based on your
capability of tracing the sources and reasons for your
interpretations.
Literature can provide guidance to provide the context with which
to interpret the data that has been generated.

Ways of increasing validity involve
(see Lincoln and Guba, 1985;
Schaffir and Stebbins, 1991):

Member checking You can show the participants excerpts of
your interpretation of their interviews.
Disconfirming evidence Process where you first establish the
preliminary themes or categories in a study and then search
through the data for evidence that is consistent with or dispels
these themes.
Thick, rich description To describe the setting, the participants,
and the themes of a qualitative study in rich detail can also help to
increase credibility.

Cont. with ways
Auditing Turning to experts or individuals external to the project or
reader to examine the narrative account and attest the studys
credibility.

Collaboration Using or involving the participants in the research
process right from the planning stage as co-researchers or in less formal
arrangements.

Researcher reflexivity Researchers to self-disclose their assumptions,
values, beliefs, and biases. They reflect on the social, cultural, and
historical forces that shape their interpretation. This helps the reader to
understand the interpretation better.

Cont. with ways of
Prolonged engagement in the field To stay at the research site for a
prolonged period of time. By repeated observation the researchers build
trust with participants, find gatekeepers, establish rapport, etcetera.
Peer debriefing Review of the data and research process by someone
familiar with the phenomenon challenges the researchers
assumptions and methodology, etcetera.
Interviewer corroboration The purpose of corroboration is not to
confirm whether peoples perceptions are accurate or true reflections of
a situation, but rather to ensure that the research findings accurately
reflect peoples perceptions, whatever they may be. The idea behind
this way of increasing validity is that research subjects are in a position
to corroborate or disapprove of your interpretations.
Cont. with Ways
Bracketing, positioning or researcher reflexivity (role of the
researcher) to self-disclose your social, cultural beliefs and
values and biases to the reader.

Reliabaility (consistent results)
To ensure reliability in qualitative research, examination of
trustworthiness is crucial.


Mixed method approach
When the phenomenon being investigated is not well understood, a qualitative
research can be used first to generate preliminary hypotheses, and then
quantitative research is used to test specific hypotheses.

For comprehensive studies, it is better to use both approaches (i.e. qualitative
and quantitative), a situation where, the quantitative method helps to test
hypotheses and to make the study more objective and the qualitative method
helps to give a complete understanding or in-depth information on the
phenomenon being studied in all its dimensions.

Complex studies, having many different research questions may use both
approaches to answer particular questions or to address particular research
problems.

Example
Poverty is multidimensional in nature, i.e., it has social, political and economic
dimensions.
So, a poverty study may need both approaches to be studied a situation
where the qualitative research methods are used to investigate the social
and political issues and help the voice of the poor to be heard and
quantitative methods are used to study the economic issues.

According to Lee (1999), within a single study multiple qualitative and
quantitative techniques that involve complementary data-gathering
activities can be applied that compensate for the weaknesses of individual
tactics.

The data becomes more comprehensive and quite informative.

Example
The factors affecting an organizational phenomenon can be quantitatively
investigated using a field experiment and regression analysis and
qualitative techniques used to inform about additional, little known
variables, processes and conditions that might surround the effects
investigated by the quantitative techniques.
Normally a semi-structured questionnaire is used to include both closed and
open-ended questions.

Note:
Social experiences and the realities of the world are multidimensional and so if
phenomena are viewed only along a single dimension we cannot have a complete
picture of what is going on around us.

Qualitative empirical research tends to expose the complexity of real life experience.
The use of mixed methods and a multidimensional approach allows the researcher to
frame questions which precisely focus on how different dimensions and scales of social
existence are related.

The particular strength of qualitative research lies in the knowledge provided regarding
the dynamics of social processes, change and social context, and in its ability to answer
how and why questions in those domains.

There are two core elements to the logic of qualitative explanation: one relates to a
qualitative logic of comparison, e.g., between cases, situations, contexts, over time, etc
and the second relates to the significance of context.
Understanding how social processes and phenomena are embedded within specific
contexts makes possible the development of cross-contextual generalizations.
This entails the use of contextual explanation, where emphasis is on explaining how
different dimensions of context link up together with the processes or questions driving the
study.

Using mixed methods to triangulate or to corroborate each other suggests an integrated
framework, where each method and form of data is used to highlight a specific part of the
picture.

There might however be tensions arising from differences in approaches to data collection
because of using different sets of assumptions.
To overcome any such potential difficulty the solution is in how explanations are done.
Explanations do not have to be internally consistent to have a meaning and capacity to
explain.

If indeed the realities of the world are multidimensional political, social, cultural,
economic, etc., then explanations arising from mixed data-collection methods would
be likewise (see Cho and Trent, 2006; Dixon-Woods, et. al. 2006, Moran-Ellis, 2006;
Mason, 2006 in Kimani, 2009).
Remember:
Using a quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing
results and proving or disproving a hypothesis, and

Scientific experiments are useful for testing the data gained by a series
of qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing
down of possible directions for a follow up research to take.
Research Bias
Research bias is a process where the scientists performing the research
influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome.
Some bias in research arises from experimental error and failure to take
into accounts all of the possible variables.

Other research bias arises when researchers select subjects that are
more likely to generate the desired results.
Research bias is the one factor that makes qualitative research much
more dependent upon experience and judgment than quantitative
research.
Any design process involves understanding the inherent biases and
minimizing the effects.

In quantitative research, the researcher tries to eliminate bias completely
whereas, in qualitative research, it is all about understanding that it will
happen.
Design bias
Design bias is introduced when the researcher fails to take into account the
inherent biases liable in most types of experiment.
Some research bias is inevitable, and the researcher must show that they
understand this, and have tried their best to lessen the impact, or take it into
account in the statistics analysis.

Selection Bias
This is sampling bias that occurs when the process of sampling actually
introduces an inherent bias into the study.
There are two types of sampling bias, based around those samples that you
omit, and those that you include.

Omission Bias
This research bias occurs when certain groups are omitted from the sample.
Omission bias is often unavoidable, so the researchers have to incorporate and
account for this research bias in the research design.

Inclusive Bias
Inclusive bias occurs when samples are selected for convenience.
This type of bias is often a result of convenience where, for e.g., volunteers are
the only group available, and they tend to fit a narrow demographic range.
There is no problem with it, as long as the researchers are aware that they
cannot extrapolate the results to fit the entire population.
Procedural Bias
Procedural bias is where an unfair amount of pressure is applied to the subjects,
forcing them to complete their responses quickly.
For e.g., employees asked to fill out a questionnaire during their break period are
likely to rush, rather than reading the questions properly.

Measurement Bias
Measurement bias arises from an error in the data collection and the process of
measuring.
In quantitative studies, a faulty scale would cause an instrument bias and invalidate
the entire experiment.
In qualitative research, the scope for bias is wider and much more subtle, and the
researcher must be constantly aware of the problems.
Subjects are often extremely reluctant to give socially unacceptable answers, for
fear of being judged. For e.g., a subject may strive to avoid appearing homophobic
or racist in an interview. This can skew the results, and is one reason why
researchers often use a combination of interviews, with an anonymous
questionnaire, in order to minimize measurement bias.
Particularly in participant studies, performing the research will actually have an
effect upon the behavior of the sample groups.
This is unavoidable, and the researcher must attempt to assess the potential effect.

Instrument bias is one of the most common sources of measurement bias in
quantitative experiments.
This is the reason why instruments should be properly calibrated, and multiple
samples taken to eliminate any obviously flawed or aberrant results.

Interviewer Bias
This is one of the most difficult research biases to avoid in many
quantitative experiments, which rely upon interviews.
The interviewer may subconsciously give subtle clues in with body
language, or tone of voice, that subtly influence the subject into giving
answers skewed towards the interviewers own opinions, prejudices and
values.
The use of some form of anonymous process can eliminate the worst
effects.
Response Bias
Conversely, response bias is a type of research bias where the subject
consciously, or subconsciously, gives response that they think that the
interviewer wants to hear.
The subjects may also believe that they understand the study and are
aware of the expected findings, so adapt their responses.
The amount of information given to the subject must be restricted, to
prevent them from understanding the full extent of the research.
Reporting Bias
Reporting Bias is where an error is made in the way that the results are
disseminated in the literature.
With the growth of the internet, this type of research bias is becoming a greater
source of concern.
The main source of this type of bias arises because positive research tends to be
reported much more often than research where the null hypothesis is upheld.
Increasingly, research companies bury some research, trying to publicize favorable
findings.