Sheet Metal Design

Press Working
Also called as Chipless Manufacturing and Cold Stamping.
Machine Used Press
Press Comprises of :
Frame supporting Ram & Bed
Mechanism to operate ram
Ram with Punch
Die Block

Operations:
1. Cutting Operations(work piece stressed beyond ultimate strength)
- Blanking, Punching, Notching, Perforating, Trimming, Shaving,
Slitting & Lancing

2. Forming Operations (work piece stressed below ultimate strength)
- Bending, Drawing, redrawing & Squeezing

Press Working
CNC turret type Punching Machine
Hydraulic Shearing Machine
Types of Presses
Classified on following:

Source of Power:

Mechanical - The energy of flywheel is utilized which is transmitted to
the work-piece by gears, cranks, eccentrics or levers. The flywheel
rotates freely on the crank shaft and is driven from an electric motor
through gears or V belts.

Hydraulic - In hydraulic press, the ram is actuated by oil pressure on a
piston in a cylinder.



Types of Presses

Mechanical presses have following advantages over the hydraulic presses -
(1) run faster (2) lower maintenance cost (3) lower capital cost

Advantages of hydraulic presses are: (1) More versatile and easier to operate
(2) Tonnage adjustable from zero to maximum (3) Constant pressure can be
maintained throughout the stroke. (4)Force and speed can be adjusted
throughout the stroke (5) More powerful than mechanical presses(6) Safe as it
will stop at a pressure setting

The main disadvantage of hydraulic press is that it is slower than a mechanical
press.

A press is rated in tonnes of force, it is able to apply without undue strain. To keep
the deflections small, it is a usual practice to choose a press rated 50 to 100%
higher than the force required for an operation.
.
Types of Presses
Classified on following:

Actuation Of Slide:

Rack & pinion
Cam
Eccentric
Crank
Screw
Knuckle
Toggle
Hydraulic


Types of Presses
Types of Presses
Classified on following:

Number of Slides:

Single Action
Double Action
Triple Action


Types of Presses
Double Action Press Triple Action Press
Types of Presses
Classified on following:

Frame Type:

Open
Closed

Type of Work:

Punching
Blanking
Drawing
Etc.


Types of Presses
Open Frame
Closed Frame
Press Selection
Factors to be considered while selecting a press
Overall work size, the stock thickness and material, kind of operation to be
performed, power required and speed of operation.

For punching, blanking and trimming operations usually the crank or eccentric
type mechanical press is used. This is due to their small working strokes and high
production rates. In these operations, there is sudden release of load at the end
of the cutting stroke. This sudden release of load is not advisable in hydraulic
presses. So, hydraulic presses are not preferred for these operations.
If however these are inevitable, then some damping devices are incorporated
in the press design.

For coining and other squeezing operations, which require very large forces,
knuckle joint mechanical press is ideally suited. Hydraulic presses, which are
slower and more powerful, can also be used for these operations.
Hydraulic presses are also better adapted to pressing, forming and operations,
which are slower processes.
Press Working
Definitions of the main components of the die and press :

Bed - The bed is the lower part of a press frame, that serves as a table to which a
bolster plate is mounted.

Bolster plate - This is a thick plate secured to the press bed, which is used for
locating and supporting the die assembly. It is usually 5 to 12.5 cm thick.

Die set - It is unit assembly which incorporates a lower and upper shoe, two or
more guideposts and guidepost bushings.

Die - The die may be defined as the female part of a complete tool for producing
work in a press. It is also referred to a complete tool consisting of a pair of mating
members for producing work in a press. Die block, is a block or a plate which
contains a die cavity.

Lower Shoe - The lower shoe of a die set is generally mounted on the bolster
plate of a press. The die block is mounted on the lower shoe. Also, the guide
posts are mounted in it.
Press Working
Press Working
Punch - This is the male component of the die assembly, which is directly or indirectly
moved by and fastened to the press ram or slide.

Upper Shoe - This is the upper part of the die set which contains guidepost bushings.

Back up plate - Back up plate or pressure plate is placed so that the intensity of
pressure does not become excessive on punch hold or the plate distributes the pressure
over a wide area and the intensity of pressure on the punch holder is reduced to avoid
crushing.

Stripper - It is a plate which is used to strip the metal strip from a cutting or non-cutting
punch or die. It may also guide the sheet.

Knockout - It is a mechanism, usually connected to and operated by the press ram, for
freeing a work-piece from a die.
Pitman - It is a connecting rod which is used to transmit motion from the main drive shaft
to the press slide.

Shut Height - It is the distance from top of the bed to the bottom of the slide, with its
stroke down and adjustment up.
Cutting Operations
Notching: This is cutting operation by which metal pieces are cut from the edge
of a sheet, strip or blank.
Perforating: This is a process by which multiple holes which are very small and
close together are cut in a flat work material.
Trimming: This operation consists of cutting unwanted excess material from the
periphery of a previously formed component.
Shaving: Edges of a blanked part are generally rough, uneven and unsquare.
Accurate dimensions of the part are obtained by removing a thin strip of metal
along the edges. This operation is termed as Shaving.
Slitting: It refers to the operation of making incomplete holes in a workpiece.
Lancing: This is a cutting operation in which a hole is partially cut and then one
side is bent down to form a sort of tab or louver. Since no metal is actually
removed, there will be no scrap.
Nibbling: The nibbling operation which is used for only small quantities of
components, is designed for cutting out flat parts from sheet metal. The flat parts
range from simple to complex contours. This operation is generally substituted
for blanking. The part is usually moved and guided by hand as the continuously
operating punch cuts away at the edge of the desired contour.
Forming Operations
Bending - In this operation, the material in the form of flat sheet or strip, is
uniformly strained around a linear axis which lies in the neutral plane and
perpendicular to the lengthwise direction of the sheet or metal.

Drawing - This is a process of forming a flat workpiece in to a hollow shape by
means of a punch which causes the blank to flow into a die cavity.

Squeezing - Under this operation, the metal is caused to flow to all portions of a
die cavity under the action of compressive forces.


Press Operations
Shearing - Shearing is a sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line
between two cutting edges by means of a power shear.

Metal sheet is held on top of hardened die, shearing blade cuts downward,
usually driven by hydraulic or electric force.

Punching & Blanking - Blanking and punching are similar sheet metal cutting
operations that involve cutting the sheet metal along a closed outline. If the part
that is cut out is the desired product, the operation is called blanking and the
product is called blank.

If the remaining stock is the desired part, the operation is called punching.

Both operations are illustrated on the example of producing a washer:



Blanking & Punching
Cutting of sheet metal is accomplished by a shearing action between two sharp
edges. The shearing action is illustrated in the figure:
Punching & Blanking
Blanking & Punching
Clearance:
Clearance c is the distance between the punch and die. The correct clearance
depends on sheet-metal type and thickness t:
c = at (Typically 2 to 10% of thickness)
where a is the allowance (a = 0.075 for steels and 0.060 for aluminum alloys)
If the clearance is not set correctly, either an excessive force or an oversized burr
can occur
Blanking & Punching
Blanking & Punching
The clearance is a function of the kind, thickness and temper of the work material,
harder materials requiring larger clearance than soft materials, the exception
being Aluminium.

The usual clearances per side of the die, for various metals, are given
below in terms of the stock thickness, t :

For brass and soft steel, c = 5% of t
For medium steel, c = 6% of t
For hard steel, c = 7% of t
For aluminium, c = 10% of t

The total clearance between punch and die size will be twice these figures. These
clearances are for blanking and piercing operations.
Blanking & Punching
The reason behind the application of clearance

The diameter of the blank or punched hole is determined by the burnished area.
On the blank, the burnished area is produced by the walls of the die.
Therefore, the blank size will be equal to the size of die opening (neglecting a
slight expansion of the blank duo to elastic recovery after the cutting operation is
completed).
Similarly in punching operation, the burnished area in the hole is produced by the
punch, therefore, the size of the hole will be the same as the punch. Therefore, the
application of clearance on punch or die will depend on whether the punched hole
or the cut blank is the desired product. Hence, in punching operation (where hole
in the strip is the desired product), the punch is made to the correct hole size and
the die opening is made oversize an amount equal to clearance. Similarly, if the
blank is the desired product, the die opening size is made to the correct blank size
and the punch is made smaller an amount equal to die clearance.
In other words, punch controls the hole size and die opening controls the blank
size.
Blanking & Punching
Land - It is the flat (usually horizontal)
surface continuous to the cutting of a die
which is ground and reground to keep the
cutting edges of the punch sharp.
Straight - It is the surface of a cutting die
between its cutting edge and the
beginning of the angular clearance. This
straight portion gives strength to the
cutting surface of the die and also
provides for sharpening of the die. This
straight portion is usually kept at about 3
mm for all materials less than 2 mm thick.
For thicker materials it is taken to be
equal to the metal thickness.

Angular clearance - Angular clearance or relief is provided to enable the slug to clear
the die. It is provided below the straight portion of the die surface. It is usually to
1 per side but occasionally as high as 2. , depending mainly on stock thickness and
frequency of sharpening.
Blanking & Punching
Punch and Die Clearance considering the elastic recovery of the material:
After cutting operation has been completed, elastic recovery of the strip
material takes place.
In blanking operation, after the release of blanking pressure, the blank
expands slightly. The blanked part is thus actually larger than the die opening
that has produced it.
In punching operation, after the strip is stripped off the punch, the material
recovers and the hole contracts. Thus, the hole is actually smaller than the
size of the punch which produced it.
Difference in size due to elastic recovery will depend upon: blank size, stock
thickness and stock material.
If the stock is upto 0.25mm, this difference may be taken as zero.
For stock thickness between 0.25 mm and 0.75 mm, it may be taken as equal
to 0.025 mm
For stock thickness more than 0.75 mm, it may be taken as 0.05mm.
Thus to produce correct hole and blank sizes, the punch size should be
increased and the die opening size should be decreased.
Blanking & Punching
Cutting forces -

Cutting force in all shearing operations is determined by
F=StL

where S is the shear strength of material, for approximate solutions,
S=0.7UTS
T is thickness of sheet
L is the length of the cut edge
Blanking & Punching
Tools and dies for cutting operations

Simple dies
When the die is designed to perform a single operation (for example, cutting,
blanking, or punching) with each stroke of the press, it is referred to as a simple die
Blanking & Punching
Multi-operational dies:
More complicated press working dies include:

compound die to perform two or more operations at a single position of the
metal strip
progressive die to perform two or more operations at two or more positions of
the metal strip
Blanking & Punching
Strip Layout
Preparation of Blanking Layout

It is a layout, of position of the work-pieces in the strip and their orientation with
respect to one another.

Major considerations are
Economy of material
Direction of material grain
Scrap twisting & wedging
The strip layout with maximum material saving may not be the best strip layout,
as the die construction may become more complex which would offset
the savings due to material economy unless a large number of parts are to be
produced.
Strip Layout
Strip Layout
a = t + 0.015 h

b = approx. 1 to 1.5t
Forming Operations
Some Design Tips:
Dimension the part in a single direction wherever possible
Sequential nature of the forming process and introduction of
dimensional variation at each bend
It is in line with the process and helps to control tolerance
accumulation
Allow a more generous bend tolerance (+/- .007) as tighter tolerances, while
achievable, will result in higher costs
Use consistent bend radius for all bends per part ; it minimize setup changes
Dimensioning should be done from a feature to an edge. Avoid feature-to-feature
dimensions over two or more planes. Feature-to-bend dimensions may require
special fixtures or gauging.
This also means that tolerances in the title block of a drawing may be
unnecessarily restrictive for certain dimensions and angles, while very appropriate
for others.
Forming Operations
Critical Dimensions in Sheet Metal Forming

Outside dimension should be used unless the inside dimension is critical.
Emboss and offset dimensions should be to the same side of the material
unless the overall height is critical.
Only the truly critical dimensions
should be highlighted as such. Placing
excessively high tolerances and
redundant critical dimensions can
dramatically increase the cost
of the part.
Forming Operations
As a rule, inside bend radius should be equal to material thickness. When the
radius is less than recommended, this can cause material flow problems in soft
material and fracturing in hard material.

When a bend is made close to an edge the material may tear unless bend relief
is given.
Figure "A" shows a torn part. Figure "B" shows a part with the edge a sufficient
distance from the form. This distance should never be less than the radius of the
bend. Figure "C" shows a bend relief cut into the part, again the depth of the relief
should be greater than the radius of the bend. The width of the relief should be a
material thickness or greater, preferably a material thickness + 1/64".
Forming Operations
Forming Near Holes When a bend is made too close to a hole, the hole may
become deformed.
Figure "A" shows a hole that has become teardrop shaped because of this
problem. To save the cost of punching or drilling in a secondary operation the
following formulas can be used to calculate the minimum distance required:

For a hole < 1" in diameter the minimum distance "D" = 2T + R (see fig. "B")
For a slot or hole > 1" diameter then the minimum distance "D" = 2.5T + R (see fig.
"C)
Forming Operations
Form height to thickness ratio

To determine the minimum form height for sheet metal use the following formula:

D = 2.5T + R (see below) The height can be less but it required secondary
operations and is far more costly.
Forming Operations
Edge Distortion

An exaggerated example of edge deformation is pictured in figure "A" below.
The overhang caused by this distortion can be as large as the material
thickness. As material thickness increases and bend radius decreases the
overhang becomes more severe.
In situations where an overhang is unacceptable the part can be relieved as in
figure "B".
Forming Operations
Hole to edge clearance

A good rule of thumb for hole placement is to keep the hole at least one material
thickness away from any edge. If the hole gets too close to an edge a bulge can
form as shown below. Also note, if the hole is used for fastening two pieces
together, extra web should be used to account for the added stress.
Forming Operations
Hole Taper

When a hole is punched, it does not have a constant radius through the entire
thickness of the part. The cross section of a punched hole is shown below.
The taper in the bottom side of the hole is relative to the die clearance. Die
clearance is the difference between the punch diameter and die diameter. It is
usually about 10% of the material thickness. To get a constant diameter through
the entire material thickness the part must be drilled, a far more costly operation.
For most materials hole diameter should not be less than material thickness. As
tensile strength increases the punch diameter must also increase.
Forming Operations
Feature placement restrictions
When placing formed features next to one another, care should be taken to allow
clearance between features. If the station does not clear a form already
placed in the part, the form could be flattened out. An example of good vs. bad
placement is illustrated below. Relieving the stripper can overcome this problem in
some cases.
Forming Operations
Counter sinks
A counter sink can be put in sheet metal by both machining and/or punching.
Each of these methods give the finished part different characteristics. The cross
sections of the features are shown below, they are listed from least to most
expensive (tooling cost not included).
Formed Low Cost Used for thin gages, 18 gage and lighter.
Punched Low Cost Most common, used for anything heavier than 18 gage.
Punched and Machined Medium Cost Used for harder materials that cannot
be formed with a punch, e.g. heavy gage stainless.
Machined Complete High Cost Rarely used, only for high tolerance
applications or materials too thick to be punched.
Forming Operations
Corners- May be sharp, however to reduce tooling costs, specify radii of
material thickness or a minimum of .015.

Notches and Tabs- Should not be narrower than 1.5X the material
thickness. Length of notches can be up to 5X length of material thickness.
Forming Operations
Cutoffs:
There are three kinds of cutoffs in blanking: straight/square, half round or partial
radius and full radius. The square cutoff is the most economical. The full radius is
not recommended as it leaves an unavoidable feather edge burr along the
outside material edge.

Piercing:
Holes-Minimum diameter of holes should be equal or greater than 1.2 X material
thickness, and 2X material thickness for stainless steel or high tensile materials.

Edge-to-hole- Allow 2x material thickness (web) to prevent bulging of material
Bending Operations
Bending is defined as the straining of the sheet metal around a straight edge.
Bending induces plastic deformation in the material, so material retains its
shape after releasing the force.
Bending Operations
Bending operations involve the processes of V-bending and edge bending:
V-bendingsheet metal is bent along a straight line between a V-shape punch
and die.
Edge bendingbending of the cantilever part of the sheet around the die edge.
Bending Operations
Bend Allowance:

This is the stretching length that occurs during
bending. It must be accounted to determine the
length of the blank,

L
b
= L + BA

where L
b
is the length of the blank, L are the
lengths of the straight parts of the blank, BA is the
bend allowance,



where A is the bend angle; t is the sheet
thickness;R is the bend radius; Kba is a factor to
estimate stretching, defined as follows:
for R < 2t , Kba = 0.33
for R 2t, Kba = 0.50
Bending Operations
Springback:

Springback is the elastic recovery leading to the increase of the included angle
when the bending pressure is removed.

To compensate for springback two methods are commonly used:

Overbendingthe punch angle and radius are smaller than the final ones.
Bottomingsqueezing the part at the end of the stroke.
Bending Operations
Bending Operations
Bending forces

The maximum bending force is estimated as
F = K
bf
UTS wt
2
/D
where K
bf
is the constant that depends on the process, K
bf
= 1.33 for V-bending
and K
bf
= 0.33 for edge bending;
w is the width of bending; D is the die opening dimension as shown in the figure:
Bending Operations
Bending Operations
Bending Operations
Deep Drawing Operations
Deep Drawing Operations
Deep Drawing Operations
Deep drawing is a sheet-metal operation to make hollow-shaped parts from a sheet
blank.

Deep Drawing Operations
Clearance
Clearance c is the distance between the punch and die and is about 10% greater
than the stock thickness:
c = 1.1t

Holding force
The improper application of the holding force can cause severe defects in the
drawn parts such as (a) flange wrinkling or (b) wall wrinkling, if the holding force is
too small, and (c) tearing if the folding force is overestimated.
Deep Drawing Operations
Measures of drawing

Two measures of the severity of a deep drawing operation are used,

1. Drawing ratio DR defined as
DR = D
b
/D
p
Here D
b
is the blank diameter and D
p
is the punch diameter

DR must be less than 2.0 for a feasible operation. If it is more than 2.0, the
progressive deep drawing is applied .

2. Thickness-to-diameter ratio t/ D
b,
It is desirable to be greater than 1% to avoid
wrinkling.
Blanked and drawn parts showing progression of drawing
Deep Drawing Operations
Blanked and drawn parts showing progression of drawing operation
Deep Drawing Operations
Drawing forces

The drawing force F required to perform a deep drawing operation is estimated
roughly by the formula,

F = t D
p
UTS (DR - 0.7)

The holding force F
h
is defined as,
F
h
= 0.015 Y [D
b
2
- (D
p
+ 2.2t + 2R
d
)
2
]
where Y is the yield strength of the material


Blank size determination

The blank diameter can be calculated by setting the initial blank volume equal
to the final volume of the part and solving for diameter D
b
.
Guerin Process
The Guerin process involves the use of a thick rubber pad to form sheet metal
over a positive form block:
Guerin Process
Advantages: small cost of tooling
Limitations: for relatively shallow shapes
Area of application: small-quantity production
Hydroforming Process
It is similar to Guerin process but instead of rubber pad a rubber diaphragm filled
with fluid is used in this process.
(1) start-up, no fluid in the cavity;
(2) press closed, cavity
pressurized with hydraulic fluid;
(3) punch pressed into work to
form part.
Symbols: v - velocity, F applied
force, and p - hydraulic pressure
Advantages: small cost of tooling
Limitations: simple shapes
Area of application: small-quantity production
Stretch Forming Process
In stretch forming process, the sheet metal is stretched and bent to achieve the
desired shape.
(1) start of the process
(2) form die is pressed into
the work causing it to stretched
and bent over the form.
Symbols: v - velocity
F
die
- applied force
Advantages: small cost of tooling, large parts
Limitations: simple shapes
Area of application: small-quantity production
Spinning Process
Spinning is a metal forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually
shaped over a mandrel by means of a rounded tool or roller.
Flat circular blanks
are often formed into
hollow shapes such
as photographic
reflectors.
In a lathe, tool is
forced against a
rotating disk,
gradually forcing the
metal over the chuck
to conform to its
shape.
Chucks and follow
blocks are
usually made of wood
for this process
Advantages: small cost of tooling, large parts (up to 5 m or
more)
Limitations: only axially symmetric parts
Area of application: small-quantity production
High Energy Rate Forming
These are metal forming processes in which large amount of energy is applied in a
very short time.
Some of the most important HREF operations include:

Explosive forming
It involves the use of an explosive charge placed in water to form sheet into the
die cavity.
High Energy Rate Forming
Advantages: small cost of tooling, large parts
Limitations: skilled and experienced labor
Area of application: large parts typical of the aerospace industry
Electrohydraulic Forming
This is a HREF process in which a shock wave to deform the work into a die cavity
is generated by the discharge of electrical energy between two electrodes
submerged in water. Similar to explosive forming, but applied only to small part
sizes.
Electromagnetic Forming
The sheet metal is deformed by the mechanical force of an electromagnetic field
induced in the work-piece by a coil.
Advantages: can produce shapes, which cannot be produced easily by the
other processes
Limitations: suitable for magnetic materials
Area of application: most widely used HERF process to form tubular parts
Other Design Points
To provide strength Ribbing, Notching
To eliminate Fragility Embossing
Care to be taken for 90 degree bend ribbing
For small quantity laser cutting and manual bending
Tooling considerations
Modifications/design revisions Tooling consideration (material addition or
removal in the tool)