WXES2106

Network Technology
Semester 1 2004/2005
Chapter 6
Routing Protocol

CCNA1: 10.1, 10.2, CCNA2: Module 6 and 7

Contents
 Introduction
 Routed Protocol

 Routing Protocol

 Static Route

 Dynamic Route

 RIP

 IGRP
Introduction
 A protocol is a set of rules that determines how
computers communicate with each other across
networks.
 A protocol describes the following:
 The format that a message must conform to

• The way in which computers must exchange a

message within the context of a particular activity
Routed Protocol
 A routed protocol allows the router to forward data
between nodes on different networks.
 Internet Protocol (IP) is the routed protocol of the Internet.
IPX/SPX, Appletalk are types of routed protocol.
 IP is a connectionless, unreliable, best-effort delivery
protocol. It determines the most efficient route for data
based on the routing protocol.
 As a packet travels through an internetwork to its final
destination, the Layer 2 frame headers and trailers are
removed and replaced at every Layer 3 device.
 This is because layer 2 data units, frames, are for local
addressing while layer 3 data units, packets, are for end-to-
end addressing.
Routed Protocol
Routed Protocol
 As a frame is received at a router interface, the destination
MAC address is extracted.
 The address is checked to see if the frame is directly
addressed to the router interface, or if it is a broadcast.
 In either of these two cases, the frame is accepted. Otherwise,
the frame is discarded
 The packet is then checked to see if it is actually destined for
the router, or if it is to be routed to another device in the
internetwork.
 If the destination IP address matches one of the router ports,
the Layer 3 header is removed and the data is passed up to
the Layer 4.
Routed Protocol
 If the packet is to be routed, the destination IP address
will be compared to the routing table.
 If a match is found or there is a default route, the packet
will be sent to the interface specified in the matched
routing table statement.
 When the packet is switched to the outgoing interface, a
new CRC value is added as a frame trailer, and the
proper frame header is added to the packet.
 The frame is then transmitted to the final destination
Routed Protocol
 Two types of delivery services are connectionless and
connection-oriented.
 In a connectionless system, the destination is not
contacted before a packet is sent.
 Connectionless network processes are often referred to
as packet switched processes
 In connection-oriented systems, a connection is
established between the sender and the recipient
before any data is transferred.
 Connection-oriented network processes are often
referred to as circuit switched processes.
Routing Protocol
 Routing is an OSI Layer 3 function.
 Routing is a hierarchical organizational scheme that allows
individual addresses to be grouped together.
 Routing is the process of finding the most efficient path from
one device to another.
 The primary device that performs the routing process is the router.
 Two key functions of a router:
 Maintain routing tables and make sure other routers know of
changes in the network topology.
 The router switches the packets to the appropriate
interface, adds the necessary framing information for the
interface, and then transmits the frame.
Routing Protocol
 Routing protocols use various combinations of metrics for
determining the best path for data.
 Routed protocols transport data across a network. Routing
protocols allow routers to choose the best path for data from
source to destination.
 Routers use routing protocols to exchange routing tables
and share routing information. It enable routers to route
routed protocols.
 Main functions:
 Provides processes for sharing route information

 Allows routers to communicate with other routers to update

and maintain the routing tables
Routing Protocol
Routing Protocol
 Example, Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol (IGRP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF),
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), and Enhanced IGRP
(EIGRP).
 Path Determination

 enables a router to compare the destination address to

the available routes in its routing table, and to select
the best path
 decide which port an incoming packet should be sent out of
to travel on to its destination.
 It lets the router to decide which outbound port the packet
should be sent.
Routing Protocol
 Path Determination Process
 The destination address is obtained from the packet.

 The mask of the first entry in the routing table is applied

to the destination address.
 The masked destination and the routing table entry are
compared.
 If there is a match, the packet is forwarded to the port
that is associated with that table entry.
 If there is not a match, the next entry in the table is
checked.
Routing Protocol
 If the packet does not match any entries in the table,
the router checks to see if a default route has been
set.
 If a default route has been set, the packet is
forwarded to the associated port. A default route is
the route to use if there are no matches in the routing
table.
 If there is no default route, the packet is discarded.
Usually a message is sent back to the sending device
indicating that the destination was unreachable.
Routing Protocol
 Routing Table
 Routing tables contain the information necessary to
forward data packets across connected networks.
 Protocol type

 The type of routing protocol that created the routing

table entry
 Destination/next-hop associations

 Inform a router that a particular destination is either

directly connected to the router, or that it can be
reached using another router called the “next-hop”
Routing Protocol
 Routing metric
 Used to determine the desirability of a route. The
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) uses hop count
as its only routing metric. Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (IGRP) uses a combination of bandwidth,
load, delay, and reliability metrics
 Outbound interfaces
 The interface that the data must be sent out on, in
order to reach the final destination.
Routing Protocol
 Routing algorithms
 Different routing protocols use different algorithms to decide
which port an incoming packet should be sent to.
 Routing algorithms Design Goal
 Optimization
 Describes the capability of the routing algorithm to select
the best route. The route will depend on the metrics and
metric weightings used in the calculation.
 Simplicity and low overhead
 The simpler the algorithm, the more efficiently it will be
processed by the CPU and memory in the router.
Routing Protocol
 Robustness and stability
 A routing algorithm should perform correctly

 Flexibility
 Should quickly adapt to a variety of network changes.
These changes include router availability, router
memory, changes in bandwidth, and network delay.
 Rapid convergence
 Convergence is the process of agreement by all routers
on available routes. When a network event causes
changes in router availability, updates are needed to
reestablish network connectivity.
Routing Protocol
 Routing Metric
 Bandwidth

 The data capacity of a link.

 Delay

 The length of time required to move a packet along each

link from source to destination.
 Load

 The amount of activity on a network resource such as a

router or a link.
 Reliability

 Usually a reference to the error rate of each network link.

Routing Protocol
 Hop count
 The number of routers that a packet must travel
through before reaching its destination.
 Ticks
 The delay on a data link using IBM PC clock ticks.
One tick is approximately 1/18 second.
 Cost
 An arbitrary value, usually based on bandwidth
Routing Protocol
Routing Protocol
 An autonomous system is a network or set of
networks under common administrative control,
such as the cisco.com domain.
 Two families of routing protocols are Interior Gateway
Protocols (IGPs) and Exterior Gateway Protocols
(EGPs).
 EGPs route data between autonomous systems.
 An example of an EGP is Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP).
Routing Protocol
Routing Protocol
 IGPs route data within an autonomous system.
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and (RIPv2)
 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System protocol
(IS-IS)
 IGPs can be further categorized as either distance-
vector or link-state protocols.
Routing Protocol
Routing Protocol
 Distance Vector
 Determines the distance and direction, vector, to
any link in the internetwork.
 The distance may be the hop count to the link.
 Routers using distance-vector algorithms send all or
part of their routing table entries to adjacent routers
on a periodic basis.
 By receiving a routing update, a router can verify all the
known routes and make changes to its routing table.
 Also known as the Bellman-Ford algorithm
 Example, RIP, IGRP and EIGRP
Routing Protocol
Routing Protocol
 Link State
 To overcome limitations of distance vector routing protocols.
 Also known as Dijkstra's algorithm or as the shortest path
first (SPF) algorithm.
 protocols respond quickly to network changes sending
trigger updates only when a network change has occurred.
 send periodic updates, known as link-state refreshes, at longer
time intervals, such as every 30 minutes.
 When a route or link changes, the device that detected the
change creates a link-state advertisement (LSA) concerning
that link.
Routing Protocol
 The LSA is then transmitted to all neighboring devices.
Each routing device takes a copy of the LSA, updates
its link-state database, and forwards the LSA to all
neighboring devices.
 Topological database
 A collection of information gathered from LSAs
 SPF algorithm
 A calculation performed on the database that results in
the SPF tree
 It computes network reachability.
 Routing table
 A list of the known paths and interfaces
Routing Protocol
 Three main concerns related to link-state protocols:
 Processor overhead

 Memory requirements

 Bandwidth consumption

 Examples of link-state protocols include Open

Shortest Path First (OSPF) and Intermediate System-
to-Intermediate System (IS-IS).
Routing Protocol
Routing Protocol
 RIP
 Distance vector routing protocol

 Uses hop count as its metric to determine the

direction and distance to any link in the internetwork.
 Cannot route a packet beyond 15 hops.

 Routing updates broadcast every 30 seconds

 RIPV1
 All devices in the network use the same subnet mask

 Classful routing
Routing Protocol
 RIPV2
 Provides prefix routing, and does send subnet mask information
in routing updates.
 Classless routing
 Different subnets within the same network can have different
subnet masks., variable-length subnet masking (VLSM).
 IGRP
 Distance-vector routing protocol
 Based on delay, bandwidth, load, and reliability
 Classful routing
 Maximum hop 255
 Routing updates broadcast every 90 seconds
Routing Protocol
 OSPF
 Link-state routing protocol
 Address the needs of large, scalable internetworks
 Open standard routing protocol
 The SPF algorithm is used to calculate the lowest cost
to a destination.
 Routing updates are flooded as topology changes
occur.
 IS-IS
 Link-state routing protocol
 Supports multiple routed protocols including IP
Routing Protocol
 EIGRP
 Proprietary Cisco protocol
 Provides superior operating efficiency such as fast
convergence and low overhead bandwidth
 It uses load balancing.
 It uses a combination of distance vector and link-state
features. Hybrid routing protocol
 It uses Diffused Update Algorithm (DUAL) to
calculate the shortest path.
 Routing updates are multicast using 224.0.0.10
every 30 seconds or as triggered by topology
changes.
Routing Protocol
 BGP
 An example of an External Gateway Protocol (EGP)

 Exchanges routing information between autonomous

systems while guaranteeing loop-free path selection.
 BGP4 is the first version of BGP

 Supports classless interdomain routing (CIDR) and

route aggregation.
 Makes routing decisions based on network policies,
or rules using various BGP path attributes
Static Route
 A network administrator configures information about
remote networks manually.
 Static routing is not as scalable as dynamic routing
because of the extra administrative requirements.
 Static route operations can be divided into these three
parts:
 Network administrator configures the route

 Router installs the route in the routing table

 The static route is used to route packets.

Static Route
 configure a static route
 enter global configuration mode
 Router(config)#ip route destination-network
subnet-mask outgoing-interface
 Router(config)#ip route destination-network
subnet-mask next-hop-ip-address
 Router(config)#copy running-config startup-config
 save the active configuration to NVRAM.
 configure default route
 Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [next-hop-
address | outgoing interface]
Static Route
 Router#show running-config
 Verify that the static route has been correctly entered.

 Router#show ip route
 Verify that the route that was configured is in the
routing table.
 Use ping and tracert to troubleshoot the static route
configuration
Dynamic Routing
 The routing protocol learns all available routes, places
the best routes into the routing table, and removes routes
when they are no longer valid.
 The router uses the information in the routing table to
forward routed protocol packets.
 Whenever the topology of a network changes because of
growth, reconfiguration, or failure, the network
knowledgebase must also change.
 The network knowledgebase needs to reflect an accurate
view of the new topology.
Dynamic Routing
 Configure Routing Protocol
 Router(config)#Router { rip | igrp | eigrp | ospf } option

 Router(config-router)# Network network-number

 Network-number specifies the directly connected network

Dynamic Routing
 Routing loops can occur when inconsistent routing tables
are not updated due to slow convergence in a changing
network.
 To reduce routing loops and counting to infinity, RIP
uses the following techniques:
 Split horizon

 Poison reverse

 Holddown counters

 Triggered updates
Dynamic Routing
 Example
 When Network 1 fails, Router E sends an update to
Router A.
 When Router A sends out its update, Routers B and D
stop routing to Network 1. However, Router C has not
received an update. For Router C, Network 1 can still
be reached through Router B.
 Router C keep sending periodic update to Router D,
which indicates a path to Network 1 by way of Router
B. Router D changes its routing table to reflect this
incorrect information, and sends it to Router A.
Dynamic Routing
 Router A sends the information to Routers B and E, and
the process continues. Any packet destined for Network
1 will now loop from Router C to B to A to D and back to
again to C.
Dynamic Routing
 Split horizon can be used to avoid routing loops
 If a routing update about Network 1 arrives from Router
A, Router B or Router D cannot send information about
Network 1 back to Router A.
 Split horizon reduces incorrect routing information
and routing overhead.
Dynamic Routing
 Route poisoning is used by various distance vector protocols to
overcome large routing loops and offer detailed information
when a subnet or network is not accessible.
 The hop count is usually set to one more than the maximum.
 When Network 1 goes down, Router E will set a distance of 16 for
Network 1 to poison the route.
 This indicates that the network is unreachable.
 After Router B receives a route poisoning from Router E, it sends
an update, which is called a poison reverse, back to Router E.
This makes sure all routers on the segment have received the
poisoned route information.
Dynamic Routing
 Triggered updates
 A triggered update is sent immediately in response to
some change in the routing table.
 The router that detects a topology change immediately
sends an update message to adjacent routers.
 Ensure that all routers know of failed routes before
any holddown timers can expire.
Dynamic Routing
 Holddown timers
 When a router receives an update from a neighbor, which
indicates a network fail, the router marks the route as
inaccessible and starts a holddown timer.
 Before the holddown timer expires, if an update is
received from the same neighbor, which indicates that
the network is accessible, the router marks the network
as accessible and removes the holddown timer.
 if an update arrives from a different neighbor router with a
better metric for the network, the router marks the
network as accessible and removes the holddown timer.
Dynamic Routing
 If an update is received from a different router with a
higher metric before the holddown timer expires, the
update is ignored
 This update is ignored to allow more time for the
knowledge of a disruptive change to propagate
through the entire network.
RIP
 RIP has evolved Classful Routing Protocol, RIP Version 1 (RIP
v1) to a Classless Routing Protocol, RIP Version 2 (RIP v2).
 RIP v2 enhancements include:
 Ability to carry additional packet routing information

 Authentication mechanism to secure table updates

 Support for variable-length subnet mask (VLSM)

Configuring RIP
RIP
 Optional task:
 Apply offsets to routing metrics
 Adjust timers
 Specify a RIP version
 Enable RIP authentication
 Configure route summarization on an interface
 Verify IP route summarization
 Disable automatic route summarization
 Run IGRP and RIP concurrently
 Disable the validation of source IP addresses
 Enable or disable split horizon
 Connect RIP to a WAN
RIP
 Router(config)#ip classless
 forward these packets to the best supernet route.

 Example, if an enterprise uses the entire subnet

10.10.0.0 /16, then a supernet route for 10.10.10.0 /24
would be 10.10.0.0 /16
 Router(config-if)#ip split-horizon
 enable split horizon (default)

 Router(config-router)#timers basic update invalid

holddown flush [sleeptime]
 change holddown timer
RIP
 Router(config-router)#update-timer seconds
 Change update interval

 Router(config-router)#passive-interface Fa0/0
 disable routing updates on specified interfaces

 Router(config-router)#neighbor ip-address
 exchange routing information with neighboring router

 Router(config-router)#version { 1|2 }
 receive and send Version 1 and 2 packets

 by default send version 1 and 2 packets receive

Version 1 packets
RIP
 Router(config-if)#ip rip {receive | send} version { 1|2 }
 receive or send Version 1 or 2 packets
 Router#show ip protocols
 RIP routing is configured.
 The correct interfaces send and receive RIP updates.
 The router advertises the correct networks.
 Router#debug ip rip
 displays RIP routing updates as they are sent and received.
 RIP is capable of load balancing over as many as six equal-cost
paths. The default is four paths. RIP performs what is referred to
as "round robin" load balancing.
RIP
 Router(config-router)#maximum-paths [number]
 change the maximum number of parallel paths

 Router(config)#ip route destination-network subnet-

mask next-hop Administrative-Distance
 Create a static floating route if AD is higher than the
normal RIP route
 floating route take the place of the RIP route in the
event that the RIP routing process fails.
IGRP
 Key design of IGRP
 Versatility
 Automatically handle indefinite, complex topologies
 Flexibility
 Segment with different bandwidth and delay characteristics
 Scalability
 Functioning in very large networks
 IGRP Metrics
 Bandwidth (K1)
 Delay (K3)
 Load
 Reliability
IGRP
 IGRP Route
 Interior Route
 Routes between subnets of a network attached to a
router interface
 System routes
 Routes to networks within an autonomous system. .
 Do not include subnet information.
 Exterior routes
 Routes to networks outside the autonomous system
that are considered when a gateway of last resort is
identified.
IGRP
 IGRP maintains many timers such as update timer, an
invalid timer, a holddown timer, and a flush timer.
 Invalid timer
 Specifies how long a router should wait in the absence
of routing-update messages about a route before it
declares that route invalid.
 Flush timer
 Indicates how much time should pass before a route is
flushed from the routing table
 Configuring IGRP
 Router(config)#router igrp as-number
 Router(config-router)#network network-number
IGRP