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=
0
0
Im{ } Im{ }
% x 100
Im{losses}
DG
losses losses
RLR
=
2
(0) ( )
1
( )
nbus
i i DG
i
VPI V V
=
=
Performance indices:
Case I : Results
Cases DG Position DG Rating
(KW)
Active Power loss
(KW)
Reactive Power
Loss
(KVAR)
Minimum Bus
voltage
(pu)
Corresponding
Bus number
WITHOUT DG 224.95 102.14 0.9092 65
WITH DG 64 1872.65 83.19 40.52 0.9683 27
a.) Single DG placement
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
i
n
p
.
u
.
Bus Number
Voltage Profile
Single DG
Without DG
Distributed Generation Benefits
Cases DG Positions DG Ratings
(MW)
Active Power
loss
(KW)
Reactive Power Loss
(KVAR)
Minimum Bus
voltage
(pu)
Corresponding
Bus number
WITH 2 DGs 61 17 1.78 0.53 71.66 35.93 0.9789 65
WITH 3 DGs
18 61 11 0.38 1.71 0.53
69.41 34.95 0.9790 65
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99
1
1.01
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
i
n
p
u
Bus Number
Voltage Profile
With 1 DG
With 3 DGs
With 2 DGs
b.) Multiple DG placement
Distributed Generation Benefits
Number of DGs Active line-loss reduction
(TLLR)
Reactive line-loss reduction
(RLR)
Voltage Profile Improvement
(VPI)
Single DG
63.02% 60.33% 0.0416
2 DGs
68.15% 64.82% 0.0572
3 DGs
69.15% 65.78% 0.0594
Performance indices:
3 DG placement gives better values performance indices but not very
significant as compared with 2 DG placement.
CASE II : Methodology
PSO algorithm is used to solve the
optimization problem where each of the
objective functions are given a weightage
factor.
. In order to include cost as one of the
objective functions, it is necessary to
categorize the DG types.
,two types of DGs are taken into
consideration-1.Wind Generators,
2.Photovoltaic Cells.
Power output of wind generators depend
on wind speed and that of photovoltaic
cells depend on solar irradiance and the
ambient temperature. If these data are not
considered then the results could be
misleading
Distributed Generation Benefits
Whereas here PQ type DG is considered
where Q is computed from the power
factor and real power using the formula
given as
1
* ( ( )) Q P tan cos power factor
=
Active-line losses :
1 OBJECTIVE FUNCTIONS
2
1
( )
NS
Loss k ij
k
P x I R
=
=
1
0
Re{ }
Re{ }
DG
losses
F
losses
=
Distributed Generation Benefits
Voltage Deviation :
1
2
1
( )
{ } , 2, 3,..........
k
V V
F Max k NB
V
= =
Loadability Factor :
cr
is calculated by conducting load flow
for every load levels and storing the
minimum bus voltage for each load levels.
3
1
cr
F
=
Distributed Generation Benefits
Operating Cost
0 , or
( )
= P * , &
( )
P &
w cin w cout
w cin
rated w cin w n
n cin
rated w n w cout
if V V V V
V V
P if V V V V
V V
if V V V V
(
s >
(
(
> s
(
(
> s
(
Distributed Generation Benefits
Operating cost in a year of $4/KW for Wind generator is considered.
0
5
10
15
20
25
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68
W
i
n
d
S
p
e
e
d
Bus Number
Wind Speed(m/s)
Wind Speed(m/s)
Distributed Generation Benefits
Photovoltaic Cell
The power produced is a function of solar
irradiance and ambient temperature.
* *(1 ( ))
ing
pv stg c ref
stg
G
P P k T T
G
= +
Operating cost of $2/KW for PV cells is considered.
4
max
Toc
F
Oc
=
Where,
Toc: Total operating cost with DG.
Oc
max
: Operating cost of DGs
corresponding to its maximum value.
CONSTANTS MAGNITUDES
a
1
0.5
a
2
0.3
a
3
0.1
a
4
0.1
P
rated
1000 kw
V
cin
4 m/s
V
n
16 m/s
V
cout
20 m/s
P
stg
6
G
stg
1000 w/m
k -0.0038
Tref 27
0
C
Distributed Generation Benefits
The main objective function is:
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
* * * * F a F a F a F a F = + + +
Where, a
1
,a
2
,a
3
,a
4
: weightage factors.
: Calculate the operating cost (F
4
) as
follows:
For wind generator placement check for
the wind velocity and the maximum DG
rating constraint.
For PV cells placement check for solar
irradiance and maximum DG rating
constraint.
Choose the DG with minimum operating
cost if both satisfy constraints. Take a large
value for F
4
as penalty if both violates the
constraints.
CASE II : Results
Single DG placement
For single DG placement , PSO has 3 variables
1 2 3
[ , , ] x x x x =
where
x
1
: DG position
x
2
: DG real power
x
3
: Power factor
Cases DG
Position
DG Rating
(KW)
Active
Power loss
(KW)
Reactive Power
loss
(KW)
Min. System
Voltage
Loadability
factor
WITH Single obj. 64 1872.65 83.19 40.52 0.9683 1.6
WITH Multi obj. 60
1226 0.64pf
48.85 26.85 0.9693 1.7
Distributed Generation Benefits
Parameters Formulae Abbreviations
System loadability improvement
(SLI)
- max is maximum loadability of
the system.
max(DG) max(0)
max(0)
SLI
=
Distributed Generation Benefits
Cases DG Position
with type
DG Rating
(KW)
Active Power loss
(KW)
Reactive Power Loss
(KVAR)
Power factor
Single DG 60 1226 42.85 26.85 0.64
2 DGs 60(PV) 21(WG) 1212 410 44.45 24.36 0.54 0.99
3 DGS
24(WG) 62(PV) 60(PV)
557 421 1052 24.71 15.33 0.67 0.83 0.65
With Multiple DG
Cases Min. System Voltage
(pu)
Loadability factor Total operating cost
Single DG 0.9693 1.7 $ 2648.30
2 DGs 0.9790 2.3 $ 4243.20
3 DGs 0.9872 3.6 $ 5276.20
Distributed Generation Benefits
0.94
0.96
0.98
1
1.02
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
i
n
p
u
Bus Number
Voltage Profile
Single DG
2 DGs
3 DGs
Distributed Generation Benefits
78.28%
73.71%
0.0373
1.4
80.24%
76.15%
0.0615
1.6
89.02%
84.99%
0.0912
3.06
TTLR RLR VPI SLI
Performance Indices
Single DG 2 DGs 3 DGs
Distributed Generation Benefits
The main objective function is:
Cases DG Position
with type
DG Rating
(KW)
Active Power
loss
(KW)
Reactive Power
Loss
(KVAR)
Power factor
3DGS with tie
lines open
24(WG) 62(PV) 60(PV) 557 421 1052 24.71 15.33 0.67 0.83 0.65
3DGS with tie
lines closed
21(WG) 62(PV) 60(PV) 400 497 1125 18.06 13.66 0.67 0.86 0.69
Distributed Generation Benefits
Cases Min. System Voltage
(pu)
Loadability factor Total operating cost
3DGS with tie lines open
0.9872 3.6 $ 5276.20
3DGS with tie lines closed
0.9902 4.5 $ 4917.80
0.975
0.98
0.985
0.99
0.995
1
1.005
1.01
1.015
1 4 7 1013161922252831343740434649525558616467
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
i
n
p
u
Bus Number
Voltage Profile
3 DGs without tie lines
3 DGs with tie lines
Distributed Generation Benefits
89.02%
84.99%
0.0912
3.06
91.97%
86.63%
0.0824
4.1
TTLR RLR VPI SLI
Performance Indices
3 DGs 3 DGs with tie lines closed
CONCLUSION
The single-objective optimization problem
attempted to determine a DGs optimal
place and size by using total real power
losses as an objective to be minimized. The
results were compared to a case without
DG. It was shown that choosing proper
DG size and place has a significant impact
on minimizing power losses and
improving voltage profiles. The results
also showed that integrating multiple DGs
reduces real power losses in a system more
than by integrating only a single DG.
The results demonstrated and emphasized
that multiple DG installations decreased
total real power losses more than single
DG installations. However, multiple DG
installations may result in additional costs
but the other benefits like improvement in
voltage profile and loadability factor
encourages the use of multiple DG over
single DG.
Distributed Generation Benefits
Balanced distribution test systems were considered in this work. The optimization problem could be investigated
using unbalanced distribution systems.
The PQ-DG type model was considered in the proposed methods. Future work could include
PV-DG type model.
The multi-objective optimization problems proposed in this thesis could be solved using other aggregation
methods such as Bacteria Foraging Programming and of Gravitational search algorithm.
Other objectives could be included in the multi-obj
Different areas of this thesis can be further explored and extended. Some are presented below:
Distributed Generation Benefits
Distributed Generation Benefits
The main objective function is: