BOILERS

What is a Boiler?
Vessel that heats water to become
hot water or steam
At atmospheric pressure, water
volume increases 1,600 times
when it gets converted to steam
Industrial Boilers
Steam generators
Closed vessels
made of steel and
used for generation of steam by vaporizing
water
combustion of fuels like coal, coke, oil, wood,
saw dust
Steam used for
producing power
industrial process work
for heating proposes.
BURNER


WATER
SOURCE
BRINE
SOFTENERS
CHEMICAL FEED
FUEL
BLOW DOWN
SEPARATOR
VENT
VENT EXHAUST GAS
STEAM TO
PROCESS
STACK DEAERATOR
PUMPS
Figure: Schematic overview of a boiler room


BOILER

ECO-
NOMI-
ZER
Typical Coal-Fired Power Plant
Typical Pulverized Fuel Boiler
Typical Coal-Fired Power Plant
Requirements of a Perfect
Steam Boilers
Should be
absolutely reliable,
capable of producing maximum steam at required
pressure for minimum of fuel consumption
minimum initial cost
Minimum operating cost
Simple construction
Quick starting from cold
Can withstand stresses & strains
Well designed combustion chamber
Less floor area, space & light weight
Best gauges, safety valves and other mountings
Easily accessible for inspection,cleaning and repairs
Coal Rank
Ranks of Coal
Fixed
Carbon
Volatile
Matter Moisture
Lignite 29 26 46
Subbituminous 42 34 23
Low-rank/volatile
bituminous 47 41 12
Medium-rank/volatile
bituminous 54 41 5
High-rank/volatile
bituminous 65 32 3
Low-rank/volatile
semibituminous 75 22 3
Semianthracite 86 12 3
Anthracite 96 1.2 3
What is Peat?
Peat coal, but is the initial stage in coal
formation

A dark colored, brown to black, spongy
substance formed from partial decay of
marsh vegetation by moisture and
bacteria
Classification of Steam
Boilers
Vertical or Horizontal
Stationary, Portable, Locomotive or Marine
Internally Fired (Locomotive & Lancashire)
Externally Fired (Babcock & Wilcox)
Solid,Liquid or Gas Fired
Fire (Smoke)Tube
Water is outside the tubes while the hot gases are inside
the tubes
Eg.Vertical,Cochran,Lancashire,Cornish,Locomotive
Boiler Water Tube
Contain a large number of small tubes through which
water circulates,the fire and hot gases being outside of the
tubes
Eg.Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling and High pressure Boilers
Vertical Boilers
Vertical Boilers are simple (having one to
three cross tubes)
Fire tube or water tube
Used in small factories
Required minimum floor space
No elaborate foundation
Portable
Cheap
Easy to start
Inefficient due to large wastage of fuel and
less heating surface.
Fire Tube Boiler (~ 1800)
Relatively small
steam capacities
(12,000 kg/hour)
Low to medium
steam pressures
(18 kg/cm2)
Operates with oil,
gas or solid fuels


The fire tube boiler, the oldest design, is
made so the products of combustion pass
through tubes surrounded by water in a
shell.
Fire Tube Boiler
Fire Tube Boiler
The fire tube boiler, the oldest design, is made so the
products of combustion pass through tubes
surrounded by water in a shell.
The furnace/flame volume can either be inside or
external to the shell that contains the water.
The upper steam capacity of fire tube boilers is about
20,000 lbm/hr, and the peak pressure obtainable is
limited by their large shells to about 300 psi.
Fire-tube boilers are used for heating systems.

Water Tube Boiler (1867)
Used for high steam
demand and pressure
requirements
Capacity range of 4,500
120,000 kg/hour
Combustion efficiency
enhanced by induced
draft provisions
Lower tolerance for
water quality and needs
water treatment plant

A water-tube boiler is one in which the products
of combustion pass around the outside and heat
tubes containing the water.
Water Tube Boiler
Water Tube Boiler
A water-tube boiler is one in which the products of
combustion pass around the outside and heat tubes
containing the water.
The water tube diameter is much smaller than the
shell diameter of a fire-tube boiler, so much higher
pressures can be obtained, well over 2000 psi.
The furnace and boiler tube area must be surrounded
by a heavily insulated refractory wall to prevent heat
transfer through the boiler walls.
The refractory lining is a high maintenance item.

Simple Cross tube vertical
boiler
consists of a cylindrical shell surrounding a cylindrical fire box.
heating surface is about 8-10 times the grate area.
50% efficiency


Cochran Boiler
It is well designed Vertical fire tube (multitube) boiler
Improvement over the simple vertical boiler as it
provides greater heating surface.
Total heating surface area is about 10-25 times the
grate area
Efficiency 70-75%
Ranges from 1m diameter x 2m high (evaporation
20kg/hr) to 3m diameter x 6m high (evaporation
3000kg/hr)
Cochran Boiler contd.
Packaged Boiler (Cochran)
Comes in complete
package
Features
High heat transfer
Faster evaporation
Good convective heat
transfer
Good combustion
efficiency
High thermal
efficiency
Classified based on
number of passes

Oil
Burner
To
Chimney
Lancashire Boiler
Is a horizontal fire tube boiler
Size ranges from a shell 2m diameter x 6m
long to 3m diameter x 10m long
Working pressure range are up to 20 bar
Ratio of heating surface to grate area is 24-30
Efficiency is about 56% without economizer
and 75% with economizer
Similar to Cornish boiler ; in Lancashire Boiler
two flue tubes but in Cornish boiler only one
flue tube is present
Lancashire Boiler contd
Lancashire Boiler contd
Locomotive Boiler
Is a internally fired fire tube (multitube) boiler
Locomotive Boiler
Is a internally fired fire tube (multitube) boiler
Babcock and Wilcox water
tube Boiler
Water tube boiler having larger pressure ranges and larger
sizes.
Three main parts : steam and water drum, water tubes and
furnace.
Babcock and Wilcox water
tube Boiler
Water tube boiler having larger pressure ranges and larger
sizes.
Three main parts : steam and water drum, water tubes and
furnace.

Stirling Boiler
Example of water tube boiler where bent tube are used
instead of straight tube which are used in Babcock and Wilcox
boiler
All large and many intermediate-sized boilers
are water-tube boiler with a boiler section
that consists of closely-spaced water tubes
covering the furnace wall.
The waterwall boiler design allows much
lighter, less expensive walls by having the
waterwalls form an integral part of the boiler
wall so that the wall is water cooled.
If so equipped, the superheater and reheater
are separate sections hanging above the
main furnace volume.

Waterwall Boiler
Membrane wall of waterwall boiler
Waterwall under construction
Waterwall under construction
High Pressure Boilers
Two types- Natural circulation & Forced circulation
Boilers
High Pressure Boilers
Two types- Natural circulation & Forced circulation
Boilers
High Pressure Boilers
Two types- Natural circulation & Forced circulation
Boilers
High Pressure Boilers
La-Mont Boiler
(Forced
circulation
Boiler)
Once-Through Forced
Circulation Boiler
Does not required a steam and water drum,saving in weight
Supercritical Pressure Boiler
Two types- Benson and Ramzin
Benson Boiler
Ramzin Boiler
Loeffler Boiler
Indirect
heating is
combined
with forced
circulation
Velox boiler (Fire tube forced
circulation Boiler)
Fire tubes Vs water tubes
Boilers
Fire tubes boilers has a large volume of water,therefore
more flexible and can meet the sudden demand of steam
without much drop of pressure.
Fire tubes boiler is rigid and of simple mechanical
construction, so greater reliability and low in first cost.
Fire tube boilers can be made in smallest sizes;
therefore simple to fabricate and transport, occupies less
floor space but more height.
As water tube boilers are externally fired, furnace can be
altered considerably to meet the fuel requirements.
Water tubes boilers are more readily accessible for
cleaning, inspection and repairs,compared to the fire
tube boilers.
Modern trend is in the favors of water tube boiler due to
continuous increase in capacities and steam pressures.
Fire Tube Boiler
Water Tube Boiler
Packaged Boiler
Stoker Fired Boiler
Waste Heat Boiler
Pulverized Fuel Boiler
Fluidized Bed (FBC) Boiler
What Type of Boilers Are
There?
COAL/SOLID FUEL BURNING
There are a considerable number of ways to
feed coal in use, including :
hand-fired boilers
chain or traveling grate stokers
vibrating grate stokers
underfeed stokers
spreader stoker
pulverized coal boilers
cyclone boilers
fluidized bed boilers

Fire Tube Boiler (~ 1800)
Relatively small
steam capacities
(12,000 kg/hour)
Low to medium
steam pressures
(18 kg/cm2)
Operates with oil,
gas or solid fuels


The fire tube boiler, the oldest design, is
made so the products of combustion pass
through tubes surrounded by water in a
shell.
Water Tube Boiler (1867)
Used for high steam
demand and pressure
requirements
Capacity range of 4,500
120,000 kg/hour
Combustion efficiency
enhanced by induced
draft provisions
Lower tolerance for
water quality and needs
water treatment plant

A water-tube boiler is one in which the products
of combustion pass around the outside and heat
tubes containing the water.
Packaged Boiler (Cochran)
Comes in complete
package
Features
High heat transfer
Faster evaporation
Good convective heat
transfer
Good combustion
efficiency
High thermal
efficiency
Classified based on
number of passes

Oil
Burner
To
Chimney
Stoker Boilers
The term stoker implies a boiler that
automatically feeds (or " stokes) the
boiler.
Stoker coal size is typically 1.25 inches
maximum with less than 30% under
0.25 inches.

Stoker Fired Boilers
a) Spreader stokers
Coal is first burnt in suspension
then in coal bed
Flexibility to meet load fluctuations
Favored in many industrial
applications
Spreader Stokers

Fed by a rotating bladed wheel that throws the coal
out over the grate.
Spreaders stokers are more expensive than other
stokers in small sizes, and are more expensive than
pulverized coal boilers in large sizes (over 500,000
lbm/hr of steam) but are very common in the
intermediate (large industrial) size range.
Compared to previous stokers, more fuel burning
occurs in suspension- that is, in the air as the fine
particles are slung out over the fuel bed.

Stoker Fired Boilers
b) Chain-grate or traveling-grate stoker
Coal is burnt on
moving steel
grate
Coal gate controls
coal feeding rate
Uniform coal size
for complete
combustion

Traveling or Chain Grate
Stokers
Traveling or Chain Grate
Stokers
Traveling Grate

Traveling or Chain Grate
Stokers
Traveling or chain grate stokers feed coal out onto a
rotating metal belt that supports the fire.
Coal is fed from a hopper.
Grate speed is automatically controlled to maintain
desired steam pressure.
Burning progresses as the belt moves from front to
back of furnace.
Combustion is essentially complete at the back end of
belt, and ash is dumped off into an ashpit there.

c) Underfeed Stokers

So named because they use rams to force the coal
up underneath the burning fuel bed.
Grates are designed to flex up and downs to break
up fuel bed and prevent "clinker" formation.
Action of feed rams and fuel bed flexing cause fuel to
move from front to back of furnace.
Underfeed stokers range in size from small home
heating boilers to large industrial size.
Underfeed stokers are very good at burning high
volatile coal with a high turn-down ratio.

Screw fed Single Retort Stoker
Screw Conveyor feeds coal from
hopper to retort
Ram fed Single Retort Stoker
Ram fed Single Retort Stoker
Ram fed Stoker
Multiple Retort Underfeed Stoker
d) Water-Cooled Vibrating Grate Boiler
Vibrating Grate Stokers
Waste Heat Boiler
Used when waste
heat available at
medium/high temp
Auxiliary fuel
burners used if
steam demand is
more than the waste
heat can generate
Used in heat
recovery from
exhaust gases from
gas turbines and
diesel engines

Pulverized Fuel Boiler

Pulverized coal powder
blown with combustion
air into boiler through
burner nozzles
Combustion temperature
at 1300 -1700 C
Benefits: varying coal
quality coal, quick
response to load changes
and high pre-heat air
temperatures
Pulverized Fuel Boiler
Pulverized Fuel Boilers

Pulverized coal boilers fire finely powdered
coal, typically with an average particle size of
about 25m (0.001 in). Coal burns in
suspension, like the combustion in an oil- or
gas-fired boiler.
Coal is pulverized in some type of large mill
Pulverized coal is fired out into the furnace
volume using burners that look somewhat like
oil or gas burners.




PC vs. Stoker Boilers:
Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages of PC vs. stoker boilers:
much quicker response to changing loads
lower excess air/higher efficiency
easily adaptable to automatic control
can burn wide variety of coals
Disadvantages of PC vs. stoker boilers:
more expensive (at least for smaller capacities)
require more skilled personnel
require better emission control (particulates)
require more energy to pulverize fuel

Fluidized Bed Combustion
(FBC) Boiler
Particles (e.g. sand) are suspended in
high velocity air stream: bubbling
fluidized bed
Combustion at 840 950 C
Capacity range 0.5 T/hr to 100 T/hr
Fuels: coal, washery rejects, rice husk,
bagasse and agricultural wastes
Benefits: compactness, fuel flexibility,
higher combustion efficiency, reduced
SOx & NOx

Type of Fluidized Bed Boilers
Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC)
Boiler
Most common FBC boiler that uses preheated
atmospheric air as fluidization and combustion
air
Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC)
Boiler
Compressor supplies the forced draft and
combustor is a pressure vessel
Used for cogeneration or combined cycle power
generation
Typical Circulating Fluidized-Bed
Power Plant
Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized Bed
Combustion (CFBC) Boiler
(Thermax Babcock and Wilcox)
Solids lifted from
bed, rise, return to
bed
Steam generation in
convection section
Benefits: more
economical, better
space utilization and
efficient combustion

Boiler Mountings and
Accessories
Fitting and devices which are necessary for the safety
and control are knows as boiler mountings
Fitting or devices which are provided to increase the
efficiency of the boiler and help in the smooth working
of the plant are knows as boiler accessories.
Fittings which are essential from the
safety point of view are as follows:
Water level indicators
Safety valves
Combined high steam and low water safety valve
Fusible plug

Boiler Mountings and
Accessories contd.
Fittings which are essential from the
control point of view are as follows:
Pressure gauge
Junction or stop valve
Feed check valve
Blow-off cock
Man hole and Mud Box
The important accessories are
Superheater
Economiser
Air-preheater
Feed pump
AIR PREHEATER
Air preheaters are installed on all of the worlds fossil fired utility
boilers, used particularly in coal-fired power stations

They reduce fuel consumption by around 10%

This equates to savings of around 250MT/yr of coal and of 750MT/yr
of CO2 emissions
AIR PREHEATER
FANS
Centrifugal fan
Axial fan
ROTARY AIR PREHEATER
TUBULAR AIR PREHEATER
Boiler Blow Down
Controls total dissolved solids (TDS) in the
water that is boiled
Blows off water and replaces it with feed
water
Conductivity measured as indication of TDS
levels
Calculation of quantity blow down
required:

Blow down (%) =
Feed water TDS x % Make up water
Maximum Permissible TDS in Boiler water
Boiler Blow Down
Two types of blow down
Intermittent
Manually operated valve reduces TDS
Large short-term increases in feed water
Substantial heat loss
Continuous
Ensures constant TDS and steam purity
Heat lost can be recovered
Common in high-pressure boilers

Boiler Blow Down
Benefits
Lower pretreatment costs
Less make-up water consumption
Reduced maintenance downtime
Increased boiler life
Lower consumption of treatment
chemicals
Boiler Feed Water Treatment
Quality of steam depend on water
treatment to control
Steam purity
Deposits
Corrosion
Efficient heat transfer only if boiler
water is free from deposit-forming
solids
Boiler Feed Water Treatment
Deposit control
To avoid efficiency losses and
reduced heat transfer
Hardness salts of calcium and
magnesium
Alkaline hardness: removed by boiling
Non-alkaline: difficult to remove
Silica forms hard silica scales
Boiler Feed Water Treatment
Internal water treatment
Chemicals added to boiler to prevent scale
Different chemicals for different water types
Conditions:
Feed water is low in hardness salts
Low pressure, high TDS content is tolerated
Small water quantities treated
Internal treatment alone not recommended
Boiler Feed Water Treatment
External water treatment:
Removal of suspended/dissolved solids and
dissolved gases
Pre-treatment: sedimentation and settling
First treatment stage: removal of salts
Processes
Ion exchange
Demineralization
De-aeration
Reverse osmosis
External Water Treatment
a) Ion-exchange process (softener plant)
Water passes through bed of natural zeolite of
synthetic resin to remove hardness
Base exchange: calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg)
replaced with sodium (Na) ions
Does not reduce TDS, blow down quantity and
alkalinity
b) Demineralization
Complete removal of salts
Cations in raw water replaced with hydrogen ions
External Water Treatment
c) De-aeration
Dissolved corrosive gases (O2, CO2)
expelled by preheating the feed water
Two types:
Mechanical de-aeration: used prior to
addition of chemical oxygen
scavangers
Chemical de-aeration: removes trace
oxygen
External Water Treatment
Mechanical de-
aeration
O2 and CO2
removed by
heating feed water
Economical
treatment process
Vacuum type can
reduce O2 to 0.02
mg/l
Pressure type can
reduce O2 to 0.005
mg/l

Steam
Storage Section
De-aerated
Boiler Feed
Water
Scrubber
Section (Trays)
Boiler Feed
Water
Vent
Spray Nozzles
External Water Treatment

Chemical de-aeration
Removal of trace oxygen with
scavenger
Sodium sulphite:
Reacts with oxygen: sodium sulphate
Increases TDS: increased blow down
Hydrazine
Reacts with oxygen: nitrogen + water
Does not increase TDS: used in high
pressure boilers

External Water Treatment
d) Reverse osmosis
Osmosis
Solutions of differing concentrations
Separated by a semi-permeable membrane
Water moves to the higher concentration
Reversed osmosis
Higher concentrated liquid pressurized
Water moves in reversed direction

External water treatment
d) Reverse osmosis
More
Concentrated
Solution
Fresh Water
Water Flow
Semi Permeable
Membrane
Feed
Water
Concentrate
Flow
Pressure
Heat Balance
Balancing total energy entering a boiler against
the energy that leaves the boiler in different
forms
Heat in Steam





BOILER
Heat loss due to dry flue gas
Heat loss due to steam in fuel gas

Heat loss due to moisture in fuel
Heat loss due to unburnts in residue
Heat loss due to moisture in air
Heat loss due to radiation & other
unaccounted loss
12.7 %
8.1 %
1.7 %
0.3 %
2.4 %
1.0 %
73.8 %
100.0 %
Fuel
73.8 %
U.S. Generation (~ 4000 X 10
6
MWh
in 2003) by Fuel Source
Gas
17%
Coal
51%
Oil
3%
Water
7%
Nuclear
20%
Other
2%
Gas
Coal
Oil
Water
Nuclear
Other
U.S. Capacity Installations (MW)
from 1940 to 2003
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Technology Status
Pulverized Coal
Subcritical Cycles
Mature Technology
Thermal Efficiency ~ 36% (HHV)
Little Opportunity for Improvement in
Efficiency
Supercritical Cycles
Mature Technology
Thermal Efficiency ~ 39% (HHV)

Technology Status
Circulating Fluidized-Bed
Technology is Proven & Mature up to 350 MW
Thermal Efficiency ~ 36%
Suppliers Proposing Units >350 MW
Supercritical Cycles for Improved Efficiency and
Reduced Emissions are Under Development
Same Boiler Can Burn Wide Variety of Coal
SO
2
/NO
X
Control Internal to CFB
Air Pollution Controls
PC Boilers
Wet or Dry Scrubbers for SO
2
Control
SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction) and
SNCR/Low NO
X
Burners for NO
X
Control
Sorbent Injection for Mercury Control
CFB Boilers
SO
2
Control with Limestone Injection
Lower Temperature Combustion Reduces NO
X
Formation
SNCR for Additional NO
X
Control
Sorbent Injection for Mercury Control

Emissions Comparison
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
PC CFB IGCC
SO2
NOX
PM
500MW Unit; 3% Sulfur coal;
95% Sulfur rem. for PC & CFB;
98% Sulfur rem. for IGCC
NO
X
at 0.07 lbs/mmBtu
for PC & CFB; 2 ppmvd
for IGCC
FUEL COMBUSTION
Fuel combustion time is mainly dominated by the combustion
reaction velocity and the rate at which oxygen is supplied into
the reaction zone.
The combustion reaction velocity depends on chemical
characteristics of the fuel.
Main technical factors that affect the combustion time are:
Combustion characteristics of the fuel.
Mixing characteristics.
Fluid flow characteristics of the furnace.
The combustion velocity of an oil fuel droplet is generally less
than 0.1 msec.
In the case of coal combustion time is much longer.

Coal pulverizers
Coal pulverizers are essentially volumetric devices, because the
density of coal is fairly constant, are rated in mass units of tons/hr.
A pulverizer accepts a volume of material to be pulverized which is
dependent on the physical dimensions of the mill and the ability of
coal to pass through the coal pulverizing system.
The furnace volume and mill capacity in a specific power station may
dictate the need to purchase coals which are reactive and easily grind.
The common measure of mass in tons enables matching of energy
requirements with available coal properties and mill capacity.
Increased combustible loss can occur if the furnace volume or mill
capacity is less than desirable for a particular coal.
There are a number of possible remedial actions.
Operators can correct some deficiencies in the combustion system :
Biasing the performance of the coal pulverizing for variable coal
qualities.
Use the spare mill into service for peak periods to ensure full output.

Coal pulverizers
Size reduction is energy intensive and generally very inefficient with regard to energy
consumption.
In many processes the actual energy used in breakage of particles is around 5% of the
overall energy consumption.
Pulverizing coal is no exception to this.
There are basically four different types of pulverizing mills which are designed to reduce
coal with a top particle size of about 50 mm to the particle size range necessary for fairly
complete combustion in a modern pulverized coal fired boiler.
Each type has a different grinding mechanism and different operating characteristics.
There are four unit operations going concurrently within the mill body, coal drying,
transport, classification and grinding.
For coal pulverizers the capacity of a mill is normally specified as tonnes output when
grinding coal with a HGI of 50, with a particle size of 70% less than 75 micron and 1 %
greater than 300 micron and with a moisture in coal of less than 10%.
A few manufacturers specify 55 instead of 50 with respect to HGI.
This standardization enables selection of an appropriate mill for a specific duty.
Ball & Tube Mill
The oldest pulverizer design
still in frequent use.
25% to 30% of cylinder
volume is filled with wear
resistant balls of 30 60mm.
The cylinder is rotated at a
speed of about 20 rpm.
Specific power consumption
22 kWh per Ton.
Suitable for hard coals.
Highly reliable in requires
low maintenance.
Bulky and heavy in
construction.

mw
2
R
mg
a
Pulverization due to ATTRITION
mw
2
R
mg
a
Pulverization due to Impact
Bowl Mill
The most widely used
mill for grinding coal.
The raw coal is fed into
the center of the mill.
This is an intermediate
speed pulverizer.
The vertical shaft
rotates at a speed 30
50 rpm.
Specific power
consumption 12
kWh/ton.

Hot Air
~ 250
0
C
Coal 10 to 25 mm Size
Roller
Bowl
Bowl Mill
Aerodynamic Lifting of Coal Particles
Schematic of typical coal pulverized system
A Inlet Duct;
B Bowl Orifice;
C Grinding Mill;
D Transfer Duct to
Exhauster;
E Fan Exit Duct.
Schematic of typical coal pulverized system
Schematic of typical coal pulverized system
There are four important factors that control
combustion in boiler furnace:
1. Air supply- Need adequate air for complete
combustion.
The rating (capacity) of a boiler can be increased
by supplying additional air (think of the effect of
bellows on a small fire).
Too much air can result in excessive stack losses.

Combustion in Boilers
Combustion factors
2. Mixing of fuel and air- fuel and air molecules
must be brought into close proximity in order
for combustion to occur.

The larger the fuel "particles" the greater the
difficulty in achieving good mixing-
easiest for gaseous fuels,
more difficult for liquid fuels and pulverized solids,
most difficult for stoker coal, bark or large trash
clumps.

Combustion factors
3. Temperature- all combustion reactions proceed
exponentially more rapidly with increasing T

Temperatures too low:
incomplete combustion, waste fuel
unburned hydrocarbons and soot emissions greatly
increased
Temperatures too high:
equipment failure, metal strength drops off quickly at high T
NOx emissions greatly increased.

Combustion factors
4. Combustion time- fuel "particles" must be
given sufficient time (residence time) in the
furnace to achieve complete combustion.
Like fuel/air mixing, the required residence
time is least for gases and most for large
solid fuels:
Gases and fine liquid sprays- 10 - 20 ms
Pulverized fuel (coal, sawdust)- 1 s


Coal Residues Produced in
U.S.
More than 120 Million Tons (2005)
of coal related residues are
generated in the U.S. by coal-
burning power plants each year

Boilers & Ash By-Products

In general, there are 3 types of
coal-fired boiler furnaces used in
the electric utility industry
They are referred to as:
1. Dry-bottom boilers
2. Wet-bottom boilers
3. Cyclone furnaces

Boilers & Ash By-Products
The most common type of coal burning
furnace is the dry-bottom boiler with fly
ash constituting the major ash component
at 80-90% with bottom ash in the range
of 10-20%

Wet bottom boilers yield molten ash, or
slag from furnace bottom which drops into
a water-filled hopper

Mercury in CUBs
About 75 Tons of Hg are found in coal
delivered to U.S. power plants/year &
about two thirds is emitted to the air,
resulting in 50 Tons of Hg emissions.
The 25 Ton reduction is achieved in the
power plant through existing pollution
controls such as:
Scrubbers for SO2
SCRs (Selective catalytic reduction) for NOx
PM fabric filters

Pelton Turbine
Pelton turbines are suited to high head, low flow applications
Kaplan Turbine
Kaplan turbines are well suited
to situations in which there is a
low head and a large amount of
discharge.

The adjustable runner blades
enable high efficiency even in the
range of partial load, and there is
little drop in efficiency due to
head variation or load.


Kaplan Turbine
Kaplan Turbine
Francis Turbine
A type of hydropower
reaction turbine that contains
a runner that has water
passages through it formed
by curved vanes or blades.
The runner blades, typically 9
to 19 in number, cannot be
adjusted.

The Francis turbine has a
wide range of applications
and can be used for fall
heights of 2800 meters.

The largest Francis turbines
have an output of 750 MW.
Francis Turbine
Francis Turbine
Francis Turbine
Francis Turbine
Nuclear Steam Generator
Furnace or Radiant Section