ATOMIC SPECTRUMS

CHEMISTRY PROJECT

WHAT IS AN EMMISSION SPECTRUM
The emission spectrum of a chemical element or
chemical compound is the spectrum of frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the element's
atoms or the compound's molecules when they are
returned to a lower energy state.
Each element's emission spectrum is unique.
Therefore, spectroscopy can be used to identify the
elements in matter of unknown composition.
Similarly, the emission spectra of molecules can be
used in chemical analysis of substances.

EMMISSION SPECTRUM
The emission spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the
spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the element's
atoms or the compound's molecules when they are returned to a lower energy
state.
Each element's emission spectrum is unique. Therefore, spectroscopy can be
used to identify the elements in matter of unknown composition. Similarly, the
emission spectra of molecules can be used in chemical analysis of substances.
emission is the process by which a higher energy quantum mechanical state of a
particle becomes converted to a lower one through a photon, resulting in the
production of light. The frequency of light emitted is a function of the energy of
the transition. Since energy must be conserved, the energy difference between
the two states equals the energy carried off by the photon. The energy states of
the transitions can lead to emissions over a very large range of frequencies. For
example, visible light is emitted by the coupling of electronic states in atoms and
molecules (then the phenomenon is called fluorescence or phosphorescence). On
the other hand, nuclear shell transitions can emit high energy gamma rays, while
nuclear spin transitions emit low energy radiowaves.
The emmitence of an object quantifies how much light is
emitted by it. This may be related to other properties of
the object through the StefanBoltzmann law. For most
substances, the amount of emission varies with the
temperature and the spectroscopic composition of the
object, leading to the appearance of color temperature and
emission lines. Precise measurements at many
wavelengths allow the identification of a substance via
emission spectroscopy.
Emission spectrum of Iron
Emission of radiation is typically described using semi-classical
quantum mechanics: the particle's energy levels and spacings are
determined from quantum mechanics, and light is treated as an
oscillating electric field that can drive a transition if it is in
resonance with the system's natural frequency. The quantum
mechanics problem is treated using time-dependent perturbation
theory and leads to the general result known as Fermi's golden rule.
The description has been superseded by quantum electrodynamics,
although the semi-classical version continues to be more useful in
most cases.
ORIGINS
When the electrons in the atom are excited, for example by being heated, the
additional energy pushes the electrons to higher energy orbitals. When the
electrons fall back down and leave the excited state, energy is re-emitted in the
form of a photon. The wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency) of the photon is
determined by the difference in energy between the two states. These emitted
photons form the element's emission spectrum.
The fact that only certain colors appear in an element's atomic emission spectrum
means that only certain frequencies of light are emitted. Each of these frequencies
are related to energy by the formula:
E
photon
= h , where E is the energy of the photon, is its frequency, and h is
Planck's constant. This concludes that only photons having certain energies are
emitted by the atom. The principle of the atomic emission spectrum explains the
varied colors in neon signs, as well as chemical flame test results mentioned
above.

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Q W E R T Y U I
1
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S D F H J L
A
G K
Z X C V B N M , .
SPACE
Light consists of electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths. Therefore,
when the elements or their compounds are heated either on a flame or by an electric
arc they emit energy in form of light. Analysis of this light, with the help of
spectroscope gives us a discontinuous spectrum. A spectroscope or a spectrometer is
an instrument which is used for separating the components of light, which have
different wavelengths. The spectrum appears in a series of lines called the line
spectrum. This line spectrum is also called the Atomic Spectrum because it
originates in the element. Each element has a different atomic spectrum. The
production of line spectra by the atoms of an element indicate that an atom can
radiate only a certain amount of energy. This leads to the conclusion that electrons
cannot have just any amount of energy but only a certain amount of energy.
The emission spectrum can be used to determine the composition of a material,
since it is different for each element of the periodic table. One example is
astronomical spectroscopy: identifying the composition of stars by analysing the
received light. The emission spectrum characteristics of some elements are plainly
visible to the naked eye when these elements are heated. For example, when
platinum wire is dipped into a strontium nitrate solution and then inserted into a
flame, the strontium atoms emit a red color. Similarly, when copper is inserted into
a flame, the flame becomes green. These definite characteristics allow elements to
be identified by their atomic emission spectrum. Not all lights emitted by the
spectrum are viewable to the naked eye, it also includes ultra violet rays and infra
red lighting, an emission is formed when an excited gas is viewed directly though a
spectroscope.


TYPES OF KEYBOARDS

Alphabetic

Keys arranged in alphabetic order

not faster for trained typists

not faster for beginners either


Chord keyboards





only a few keys - four or 5

letters typed as combination of keypresses

compact size - ideal for portable applications

short learning time - keypreses reflect shape of desired letter

fast

But - social resistance, plus fatigue after extended use

Other text entry devices

Handwriting recognition

Handwritten text can be input into the computer, using a pen and a digesting
tablet

common form of interaction

Problems in

capturing all useful information - stroke path, pressure, etc. in a natural manner
segmenting joined up writing into individual letters
interpreting individual letters
coping with different styles of handwriting

Handheld organisers being released now that incorporate handwriting recognition
technology and do away with a bulky keyboard




APPLICATIONS
1.Analytical chemistry
Absorption spectroscopy is useful in chemical
analysis[4] because of its specificity and its
quantitative nature. The specificity of absorption
spectra allows compounds to be distinguished from
one another in a mixture.
An absorption spectrum can be quantitatively related
to the amount of material present using the Beer-
Lambert law. Determining the absolute concentration
of a compound requires knowledge of the
compound's absorption coefficient. The absorption
coefficient for some compounds is available from
reference sources, and it can also be determined by
measuring the spectrum of a calibration standard with
a known concentration of the target.
2.Remote sensing

One of the unique advantages of spectroscopy as an analytical technique
is that measurements can be made without bringing the instrument and
sample into contact. Radiation that travels between a sample and an
instrument will contain the spectral information, so the measurement can
be made remotely. Remote spectral sensing is valuable in many
situations. For example, measurements can be made in toxic or hazardous
environments without placing an operator or instrument at risk. Also,
sample material does not have to be brought into contact with the
instrumentpreventing possible cross contamination.

Remote spectral measurements present several challenges compared to
laboratory measurements. The space in between the sample of interest
and the instrument may also have spectral absorptions. These absorptions
can mask or confound the absorption spectrum of the sample. These
background interferences may also vary over time. The source of
radiation in remote measurements is often an environmental source, such
as sunlight or the thermal radiation from a warm object, and this makes it
necessary to distinguish spectral absorption from changes in the source
spectrum.



3.ASTRONOMY

Astronomical spectroscopy is a particularly significant type of remote spectral
sensing. In this case, the objects and samples of interest are so distant from earth
that electromagnetic radiation is the only means available to measure them.
Astronomical spectra contain both absorption and emission spectral information.
Absorption spectroscopy has been particularly important for understanding
interstellar clouds and determining that some of them contain molecules.
Absorption spectroscopy is also employed in the study of extrasolar planets.
Detection of extra solar planets by the transit method also measures their
absorption spectrum and allows for the determination of the planet's atmospheric
composition.



Mouse located on desktop
requires physical space
no arm fatigue
Relative movement only is detectable.
Movement of mouse moves screen cursor
Screen cursor oriented in (x, y) plane, mouse movement in (x, z) plane:

An indirect manipulation device.
Device itself doesnt obscure screen, is accurate and fast.
Can lead to hand-eye coordination problems due to indirectness of manipulation.

WORKING OF A MOUSE

Two methods for detecting motion

Mechanical

Ball on underside of mouse turns as mouse is moved

Rotates orthogonal potentiometers

Can be used on almost any flat surface



Optical


light emitting diode on underside of mouse

sits on special gridlike pad on desk; less susceptible to dust and dirt

detects fluctuating alterations in reflected intensity as mouse is moved over
the gridlines, used to calculate relative motion in (x, z) plane

Also a device known as the footmouse - operated with the feet; a rare
device, not in common use
Sections included under these slides
Devices for the Hand
Optical Input Devices
Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices


Alternative Input Devices
Devices for the Hand
Pens

Touch Screens

Game Controllers


Devices for the Hand - Pens




With a pen-based system, you use an electronic pen
to write on the screen and choose commands.

Pens are common input devices for handheld
computers, like personal digital assistants (PDAs).

Pens are handy for making notes or selecting
commands, not for inputting a lot of text.
The user can point, tap,
draw and write on the
computers screen with a
pen.
Devices for the Hand - Touch Screens
Touch-screen systems accept input directly through
the monitor.

Touch screens use sensors to detect the touch of a
finger. They are useful where environmental
conditions prohibit the use of a keyboard or mouse.

Touch-screen systems are useful for selecting options
from menus.
Touch-sensitive screen (touchscreens)



Detect the presence of finger or stylus on the screen. Work by interrupting matrix
of light beams or by capacitance changes or ultrasonic reflections. Direct pointing
devices.

Advantages: Fast, and require no specialised pointer. Good for menu selection.
Suitable for use in hostile environment: clean and safe from damage.

Disadvantages: Finger can mark screen. Imprecise (finger is a fairly blunt
instrument!) - difficult to select small regions or perform accurate drawing.
Lifting arm can be tiring, and can make screen too close for easy viewing.



Devices for the Hand - Game Controllers
The two primary types of game controllers are
joysticks and game pads.

Game pads usually provide controls for each hand.

Joysticks are popular for flight simulator and
driving games.


Some controllers even provide tactile feedback, such as
vibrations or pulses, to help players feel the action in the game.
IMAGING AND VIDEO INPUT DEVICES

Video input devices are used to digitize images or
video from the outside world into the computer. The
information can be stored in a multitude of formats
depending on the user's requirement.

Digital Camera
Webcam
Image Scanner
Fingerprint Scanner
Barcode Reader
Laser Range meter
Retina Scanner

Alternative Input Devices
Optical Input Devices
Bar Code Readers

Image Scanners and OCR (Optical Character
Recognition)
Optical Input Devices - Bar Code Readers
Bar code readers can read bar codespatterns of
printed bars.

The reader emits light, which reflects off the bar code
and into a detector in the reader. The detector
translates the code into numbers.

Flatbed bar code readers are commonly found in
supermarkets. Courier services often use handheld
readers.



Bar code readers
commonly track
sales in retail
stores
Optical Input Devices
Image Scanners and OCR
Image scanners digitize printed images for storage and
manipulation in a computer.

A scanner shines light onto the image and interprets
the reflection.

Optical character recognition (OCR) software
translates scanned text into editable electronic
documents.
=====Fig. 4.7=====
Light source, lens
and diode array
Document
being
scanned
Converts
diode signals
to numbers
To computer
Alternative Input Devices
Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices
Microphones and Speech Recognition

Video Input
Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices -
Microphones and Speech Recognition

Microphones can accept auditory input. A
microphone requires a sound card in the PC.

A sound card can digitize analog sound signals, and
convert digital sound signals to analog form.

With speech recognition software, you can use your
microphone to dictate text, navigate programs, and
choose commands.



Digital Audio Output
[electrical signals]
(ex. 11100011) to
computer
Analog Sound Signals
Analog Signals are Digitized
Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices
Video Input
PC video cameras digitize full-motion images.

Digital cameras capture still images.

These cameras break images into pixels and store
data about each pixel.

Video images may be compressed to use less memory
and storage space.

A webcam is a device that is used for
video conferencing ,video chatting
etc.
A digital camera helps us to take
photographs, video recording, sound
recording. Most of the twenty first
century cameras are digital. They do
not need a photographic film
Speech recognition


Promising, but only successful in limited situations - single user, limited
vocabulary systems

Problems with

external noise interfering

imprecision of pronunciation
Other positioning devices


Joystick

Indirect device
Takes up very little space
Controlled by either
movement (absolute joystick) - position of joystick corresponds to position of
cursor
pressure (isometric or velocity-controlled joystick) - pressure on stick
corresponds to velocity of cursor

Usually provided with buttons (either on top or on front like a trigger) for selection

Does not obscure screen

Inexpensive (often used for computer games, also because they are more familiar
to users)

Trackball


Bit like an upside-down mouse. Ball is rotated inside static housing,
relative motion moves cursor. Indirect device, fairly accurate. Requires
buttons for picking. Size and feel of trackball itself important. Requires
little space, becoming popular for portable and notebook computers.
Light pen

Coiled cable connects pen to c.r.t. In operation, pen held to screen and detects
burst of light from screen phosphor during display scan.

Direct pointing device: accurate (can address individual pixels), so can be used
for fine selection and drawing.

Problems: pen can obscure display, is fragile, can be lost on a busy desk, tiring
on the arm.

Both much less popular than the mouse
Dataglove



Lycra glove with optical fibre sensors. Detects joint angles and 3-d hand
position.

Solution in search of a problem - the technology to utilise the power of this
form of input properly does not exist yet.

Advantages: easy to use, potentially powerful and expressive (10 joint angles +
3-d. spatial information, at 50 Hz.).

Disadvantages: difficult to use with a keyboard, expensive (~10k/glove).

Potential: vast - gesture recognition, sign language interpretation, etc.

Eyegaze
Headset detects users eye movements to control cursor. Very fast and
accurate, also expensive.