Bioelectric Measurements

Action potential
Electrodes
Various bioelectric signals
Body surface recordings
Ion Channels
Action Potential
Na
+

K
+

Na
+
Na
+
Na
+

Potential Measurement in a Cell
Tip is small and thin, micropipette
has very high resistance and a
large capacitance to the
surrounding solution (D=0.5 um,
R=10 M, C=2 pF, Tc=20ms).
feedback capacitance
C + C
w
+ C
A

C =
f
A 1
highly
conductive
solution
R, C: resistance and stray capacitance of
the electrode
C
w
, C
A
: stray capacitances of wire and
input port of amplifier
A: amplifier gain
The electrode tip penetrates the cell membrane
without disturbing its function or leaking the cytoplasm
Input capacitance neutralization
Electrode-electrolyte Interface
If a metal is introduced in an electrolyte solution, a double layer is formed close to the electrode surface.
A net current I, that crosses the interface passing from the electrode to the electrolyte, consists of
1.
2.
3.
Electrons moving in a direction opposite to that of the current of the electrode
Cations (denoted by C+) moving in the same direction as the current
Anions (denoted A-) moving in the direction opposite to that of the current in the electrolyte
Cation
Anion
Electrode
metal with "metallic" atoms C
Electrolyte
solution containing
the electrode metal
cations of
C
+
and anions A
-

reduction reaction
oxidation reaction
Half Cell Potential
Metal atoms will lose their electrons and the resulting positive ions
will go into the solution. This leaves the electrons on the metal,
and so the metal is negatively charged compared to the positively
charged solution.
This process cannot go on indefinitely, otherwise all the metal
would dissolve. It is stopped because the increasing negative
charge on the metal drags back ions from the solution to the metal,
where they pick up electrons and become metal atoms again. In
other words, the equilibrium is set up.
When the metal comes into contact with the solution containing
ions of that particular metal, the reaction begins immediately. The
reaction initially goes either to the left or to the right depending on
the concentration of cations in the solution and the equilibrium
conditions are established finally for that particular reaction. The
local concentration of cations in the solution at the interface
changes, which affects the anion concentration at this point as
well.
The net result is that neutrality or charge is not maintained in this
region of the electrode. So the electrode surrounding the metal is
at a different electrical potential from the rest of the solution. A
potential difference, known as a half-cell potential, is determined
by the metal involved, the concentration of its ions in the solution
and the temperature as well as other second order factors.
M (s ) M
+
(aq ) + e

Charge Distribution
a diffused charge distribution exists
adjacent to the Helmholtz layer
charge distribution consists entirely
of the diffused Gouy layer.
a layer of ions
tightly bound to
the electrode
surface and an
adjacent layer of
oppositely
charged ions in
the solution.
(a) Helmholtz layer (b) Gouy layer (c) Stern layer (d) pure-Gouy layer
a fixed layer contains
more negative charges
than are required to
balance a positive
charge on the electrode.
particular charge distribution depends on the species of electrode metal and the type of
electrolyte. It is the ionic distribution that gives an electrode its properties.
The difference in charge between the metal and its
solution sets up a potential difference, or electrode
potential of the metal. Different metals would have Cell Potential
different electrode potentials. More reactive metals ionize
more easily and so they should leave more electrons on the
metal before they reach equilibrium. In other words, the
more negative the metal is, the more reactive it should be.
The salt bridge is a bit of filter paper
soaked in potassium chloride or potassium
nitrate solution. It allows the ions to flow
from one half-cell to another but prevents
the flow of solutions, therefore forms a
complete electrical circuit.
salt bridge
Half cell + Half cell = A cell
Half Cell Potential Measurement
Platinum black is a type of platinum with a large
surface area for absorbing the hydrogen gas.
The SHE electrode potential is defined as 0.0V.
The electrode potential of the other half
cell is with respect to the SHE.
The standard electrode potential of a
copper is measured +0.34V.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)
Half Cell Potentials at 25C
Electrode reaction
oxidation
reduction
Polarization
Half-cell potential of an electrode is measured under
condition that no electric current exists between the
electrode and the electrolyte
A current can alter half-cell potential due to
polarization of the electrode
The difference between the observed
zero-current
half-cell
half-cell
potential and the equilibrium
potential polarization potential (overpotential)



ohmic polarization potential
concentration polarization potential
activation polarization potential
Polarization
If there is a current between the electrode and electrolyte, the
observed half cell potential is often altered due to polarization.
V
p
=V
r
+V
c
+V
a

Polarization and impedance of the electrode are two of the most
important electrode properties to consider.
Polarization potential
Polarization
Ohmic polarization potential
Potential



The resistance of the electrolyte
A voltage drop along the path of the
of its resistance
current in the electrolyte as a result
Proportional to the current and the resistivity of the electrolyte
Concentration polarization potential
The distribution of ions in the electrolyte in the vicinity of the
electrode-electrolyte interface
Rates of oxidation and reduction at the electrode-electrolyte interface
are no longer equal after a current exists between the electrode and the
electrolyte this change results in a different half-cell potential at the
electrode
The difference between this and the equilibrium half-cell potential


Polarization
Activation polarization potential
Potential

Metal atoms to be oxidized to metal ions that are capable of going into
solution, the atoms must
energy
Reduction reaction plates
also involves an activation
overcome an energy barrier activation
out an atom of the metal on the electrode,
energy
When a current flows between the electrode and the electrolyte, either
oxidation or reduction predominates, and hence the height of the
activation energy depends on the direction of the current
This difference in energy appears as a difference in voltage between
electrode and the electrolyte
the
Total polarization potential or overpotential of an electrode
V
p
= V
r
+ V
c
+ V
a

activation, depends on direction of reaction
concentration (change in double layer)
ohmic (voltage drop)
Nernst Equation
When two aqueous ionic solutions of different concentration are separated
by an ion-selective semi-permeable membrane, an electric potential exists
across the membrane.
For the general oxidation-reduction reaction
oA + |B C + oD + ne

Half cell potential by Nernst equation
We are interested in ionic
activity at the electrode
rather than temperature
dependence
a

a
o
( RT
0
C D
E = E + ln

( o |
nF

a
A
a
B
E
0

a
n
T
F
R
where, : Standard half-cell potential
: Ionic activity (proportional to ionic concentration)
: Number of valence electrons involved
: Absolute temperature
: Faraday constant
: Gas constant
Polarizable and Nonpolarizable
Electrodes
Perfectly polarizable electrodes

Only displacement current but no actual charge crosses
electrode-electrolyte interface when a current is applied
The electrode behaves as though it were a capacitor
Platinum (Pt) electrode
the


Perfectly nonpolarizable electrodes



Current passes freely across electrode-electrolyte interface
No polarization potential
Silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrode
Real electrodes have properties that fall between these idealized limits.
Structure of Ag/AgCl Electrode
Fabrication of Ag/AgCl Electrode
mA/cm
2
0.4
0.1 mol/l
HCl
+
silver anode
AgCl deposited
on a silver plate
Potential of Ag/AgCl Electrode
Relevant ionic equations
Ag Ag
+
+ e

Ag
+
+ Cl

AgCl +
Governing Nernst Equation
Cl
2

(
K RT
Ag
+
Cl
-

E
0
ln

s
( E = +
Ag
nF a

(
Cl

E
0
: Standard half-cell potential
a
cl-
: Chloride ion activity (proportional to
ionic concentration)
n : Number of valence electrons involved
T : Absolute temperature
F : Faraday constant
R : Gas constant
Ks: Solubility product of AgCl
the equilibrium potential of a half-cell
to the standard electrode potential,
temperature, activity, and reaction
quotient of the underlying reactions
and species used.
Equivalent Circuit of Electrode
C
d
:

capacitance of
electrode-electrolyte
interface
R
d
:
resistance of electrode-
electrolyte interface
R
s
:
series resistance in the
electrolyte and the lead
wire
E
hc

R
s

E
hc
:
half cell potential of
electrode
Frequency Property of Electrode
Corner frequency
Rd+Rs
the reactance of Cd is much lower
than the resistance of Rd and the
total impedance is determined by Rs
the reactance of Cd is
big enough and can
be ignored, the total
impedance closes to
Rs+Rd.
Rs
Various Layers in Skin
most important role in the
electrode-skin interface. It
is constantly renewing
itself, its dead material
has different electrical
characteristics from live
tissue
vascular and nervous components
as well as the sweat glands, sweat
ducts, and hair follicles.
Electrode-Skin Interface
R : resistance of
s
interface effects of the
gel between electrode
and skin
C
e
: skin capacitance
E
hc

C
d

R
d

R : skin resistance
e
E
se
: potential at
semipermeable
epidermal layer
Sweat glands
and ducts
R
s
Gel
100

E
se
E
P

C : capacitance of
p
sweat gland and duct
Stratum Corneum
Epidermis
R C
e
R
P
C
P
e
R : resistance of sweat
p
gland and duct
100

Dermis and
subcutaneous layer
E : potential between
p
sweet duct and dermis
and subcutaneous layers
R
u
: pure resistance in
dermis and
subcutaneous layers
Skin impedance for
1cm
2
patch: from
200k@1Hz to
200@1MHz
R
u
Nerve
endings
Capillary

Electrode
Body-Surface Electrodes
A biopotential electrode is a transducer that senses ion distribution on the surface of tissue, and converts the ion
current to electron current.
An electrolyte solution/jelly is placed on the side of the electrode that comes into contact with tissue; the other side
of the electrode consists of conductive metal attached to a lead wire connected to the instrument. A chemical
reaction occurs at the interface between the electrolyte and the electrode.
(a) Metal-plate electrode (b) Metal-disk electrode
(c) Disposable foam-pad electrode
Suction Electrode
Electrolyte gel is placed over the contact
surface of the electrode, the bulb is
squeezed, and the electrode is sucked on
the chest wall, holding the electrode
assembly in place.
Floating Electrode
(b) cross-sectional view of (a)
(a) top-hat recessed electrode
(c) cross-sectional view of a disposable recessed electrode
Flexible Electrode
(a) Carbon-filled silicone rubber electrode (b) Flexible thin-film neonatal electrode
(c) cross-sectional view of (b)
Internal Electrode
(b) Coaxial needle electrode
(a) Insulated needle electrode
(d) Fine-wire
hypodermic
electrode
(c) Bipolar
electrode
coaxial
(e)(f) Fine-wire
electrode within
skin and muscle
Percutaneous Electrode
(b) Cross-sectional view of
(a) Suction electrode
suction electrode in place
Fetal ECG monitoring by direct connection
to the presenting part (usually the head)
through the uterine cervix during labor.
(c) Helical electrode
Electrode and radio transmitter are implanted in the body.
Implantable Electrode
Eyelet is sutured to a point in the body
where electric contact is to be established
(a) Wire-loop electrode
(b) Silver-sphere cortical-surface electrode
A hole on the calvarium is drilled and a small slit is made
in the exposed dura, then the silver sphere is introduced
through this opening so that it rests on the surface of the
cerebral cortex. The assembly is finally cemented in place
onto the calvarium by means of a dental acrylic material.
Varnish binder
A cluster of fine insulated wires held together by a varnish
binder. Each wire has been cut transversely to expose an
uninsulated cross section that serves as an active electrode
surface. By staggering the ends of the wires into deep
cortical layer, points at different depth can be measured.
(c) Multi-element
depth electrode
Electrode Array
transmural potential distributions in myocardium
A two-dimensional comb with each tine being roughly
1.5 mm long and surrounded with insulating material
up to the tip. The exposed tip serves as the electrode,
and a wire connection on the base of the structure was
needed to make contact with each tine electrode.
six pairs of Ag/AgCl electrodes
flexible polyimide substrate
(a) One dimensional array
epicardial
potential
mapping
(c) Three dimensional array
An array of miniature electrodes is formed on a rigid or
flexible surface.
Sock electrodes consist of individual silver spheres
roughly 1 mm in diameter and are incorporated into a
fabric sock that fits snugly over the heart.
(b) Two dimensional array
Model of Biopotential Recording
Equivalent Circuit
Tissue
Biopotential
Source
Biopotential
Amplifier
Electrode
Tissue
Interface
Bioelectric Signals
different forms of signals can be picked up from the surface of the body, they are characteristic to processes
taking place as the result of a multitude of sources of cellular origin, reaching the surface of the body through
the tissues on organs, which all together form an inhomogeneous volume conductor.
Heart
normal sinus rhythm
electrocardiogram
(ECG)
Brain
rest & open eyes
electroencephalogram
(EEG)
Muscles
flexing biceps muscles
electromyogram
(EMG)
Eyes
movement of eyes
electrooculogram
(EOG)
Amplitudes and Spectra of
Bioelectric Signals
0.01-100
Original signals picked up from the body surface are in general in mV or even uV range.
Their frequency ranges start from DC or very low frequencies, and spreads over kHz range.
Most electrical events in the human body have amplitudes or levels well below 1 V. The
resting potential of a cell may be as high as 0.05-0.1 V, whereas voltages recorded from the
skull related to activity of the central nervous system may be as low as a few uV.
Bioelectric Signals
Depending on the signal, frequencies range from dc to about 10 kHz,
and amplitudes range from tens of uV to 100 mV.
The amplifier for a particular biopotential must be designed to handle
that potential and to provide an appropriate output.
Especially, the amplifier input stage must match the electrodes in order
to achieve the most effective signal transfer.
Two Problems
From Intracellular Action Potential
to Body Surface Recording
Cardiac Electric Activities
Cardiac activity is based on bioelectrical stimulation of the heart muscles.
The stimulation starts from the sinus-node and reaches different parts of heart muscle through the nerve bundles,
causing contraction as a time delayed spatial wave process.
Cardiac cells in the sinus
node (yellow) initiate the
excitation. From there the
excitation activates
muscles cells in atria
(green) and atria contract.
The excitation progresses
to the AV-node (red) and
then down to Bundle
Branches, from there to
Purkinje fibers that
activate the muscle cells
in the ventricles (pink).
Contraction of the
ventricle follows.
Electrocardiogram (ECG)

43/126
Propagation and Vector of
Cardiac Electrical Activity

44/126
Electrode Positions and
Measured Waveforms
Signal Vector and Heart Disease
Normal heart Infarcted heart

46/126
Different Viewpoints
Vector and Projection
Measurement of ECG

49/12
Standard
Bipolar limb
leads
12-Lead ECG
Augmented
unipolar
limb leads
Unipolar chest
leads
6
Standard ECG Recording
Contaminated ECG
(a) Baseline wander
(b) Power-line interference
(c) EMG interference
Motion Artifact
Why
When the electrode moves with respect to the electrolyte, the distribution of
the double layer of charge on polarizable electrode interface changes. This
changes the half cell potential temporarily.
What
If a pair
other, a
motion
of electrodes is in an electrolyte and one moves with respect to the
potential difference appears across the electrodes known as the
artifact. This is a source of noise and interference in biopotential
measurements
Solution
Because motion artifact results primarily from mechanical disturbances of the
distribution of charge at the electrode-electrolyte interface, it is reasonable to
expect that motion artifact is minimal for non-polarizable electrodes
I
di
does not flow into
the electrocardiograph
because of its high
input impedance, but
flows through the skin-
electrode impedances
Z
i
and Z
g
to ground.
Power-Line Interference
Electric field coupling happens between the power lines and
the electrocardiograph and the subject due to surrounding
power lines and cords connecting different apparatus to
electric outlets.
The current through C
3
coupling the ungrounded
power line and the
electrocardiograph flows
to ground and does not
cause interference.
input voltage = V
A
- V
B

C
1
, C
2
: capacitances
between the power
line and of the leads
Z
1
, Z
2
, Z
G
:

skin-electrode
impedances
Driven-Right-Leg Circuit
i
d
flows not to ground
but to the op-amp.
Common-mode voltage on the body is sensed by
two averaging resistors R
a
, inverted, amplified, and
negatively fed back to the right leg.
Parallel resistances R
f
and R
o
are
between the subject and ground.
They can be several M - large
enough to limit the leakage current
and secure the subject.
EEG Electrode Placements
International 10-20 System
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Visual Evoked Potentials (VEP)
Electromyogram (EMG)