A BOY AND A GIRL

"I am a boy" - said the child

with black hair.
"I am a girl" - said the child
with white hair.
At least one of them lied.
Who is the boy and who is
the girl?
They both lied.
The child with the black hair is the girl, and the child
with the white hair is the boy.
(If only one lied they would both be boys or both be
girls)
Chapter V: Judgment

A. Definition of Judgment

B. Pre-requisites of
Judgment

C. Three Elements in
Judgment

D. Judgment & Proposition

E. Inference

F. Importance on the
Study of Immediate
Inference

G. Structure of Logical
inference

MENTAL ACTS AND PRODUCTS
Mental Acts Mental Products External Sign
Simple
Apprehension
Idea Term
Judgment Enunciation /
Judgment
Proposition
THREE ACTS OF THE MIND

APPLE
RED
What is the importance of studying
the Arguments?
The answer:
It is the way we support our
claims to truth and validity.

Truth and validity are the two
aspects that measure the worth of
an argument.
What is TRUTH in Logic?
Truth the correspondence or
equivalence of the mind to reality/object.

Statement
Object
The Horse is white
The truth value of a
statement is not proven by
logicians but of empirical
scientists (researches)

Logicians only study the
reasoning found on
statements and not the
question of their truth values.
Truth and Error in Judgment
* Our judgments are true when
they correspond to reality, they
are false when they do not
correspond to reality.

Ex. true man is rational.
false man is a brute.
N.B.
There is properly no truth or
error in any concept taken
singly, until you affirm or
deny something about them.



Example : The term lady
and the term beautiful are
neither true nor false. But
when the intellect compares
these two terms and
expresses whether they
agree or disagree in a
statement, then we can say
whether the statement is true
or false.

Thus, the sentence The lady
is beautiful. could now be
said to be true or false. The
intellect making judgment
therefore either affirms or
denies. The mental product of
judgment is called
enunciation and is defined
as mental judgment .

A. Definition Of
Judgment
Judgment the act by which the mind
affirms or denies an attribute of a
subject.
>The simplest act of the mind in which
it can attain truth.

The second act of the intellect by
which it pronounces the agreement or
disagreement between terms and ideas.
It is the act by which the intellect
compares and expresses the objective
identity or non-identity between ideas.
Ideas in themselves are neither true nor
false. Truth comes in when the intellect
compares and pronounces whether two
ideas agree or disagree with each other.
Proposition statement that affirms or
denies something.
verbal expression of judgment
A PROPOSITION is a statement in which
anything whatsoever is affirmed or
denied. Example: A dog is an animal
A dog is not a cat. A proposition posits
simple existence. It affirms or denies the
subject.
It is expressed by what grammarians
call a declarative sentence. It must be
distinguished from a question,
exclamation, wish, command & entreaty.

JUDGMENT
Second act of the mind by which
the mind affirms or denies the
relationship between one idea and
another idea
The act of the mind by which
propositions or statements will be
determined as true or false.

TRUTH AND FALSITY
TRUTH (logical truth)
Judgment or proposition
that agrees or
corresponds with the
reality outside the mind
FALSITY
Judgment or proposition
does not conform or agree
with the reality outside the
mind

TWO KINDS OF JUDGMENT
1. ANALYTIC (necessary or a priori)
The subject can be thought of as
contained in the predicate and the
predicate is contained also in the
subject
A square is a polygon with four
equal sides.
> judgment in which the agreement and
disagreement between the subject
and the predicate is detected merely
from the mental analysis of the two.
e.g. 2. A number is either odd or even.
TWO KINDS OF JUDGMENT
2. SYNTHETIC (contingent or a
posteriori)
The subject is not contained in the
predicate and vice versa
Mangoes are sweet. (it may be
otherwise)
Judgment in which the agreement
or the disagreement of the subject
and the predicate is knowable
only from experience.
The truth and the falsehood of
such propositions are knowable
only after experience, whether
common or scientific.
E.g., The earth is round.
JUDGMENT
The mental operation that pronounces the
identity or non-identity between two
ideas.
Judgment is classified in logic as the
second act of the mind.
Judgment may be defined as the act of the
mind affirming or denying one concept of
another by way of subject and predicate.

Example:
The mind compares a table and a
chair, the mind enunciates that A
table is not a chair.






today



B. Pre-requisites
Of Judgment/
Elements



The mind takes into consideration
three things before it pronounces an
agreement or disagreement between two
ideas. They are as follows:




1.Understanding of each of the ideas
about which a judgment is to be
made. Square and Polygon Are
the two ideas to be apprehended.
> meaning, there is a need for the
individual to apprehend the two
concepts. Each idea must have a
conceptual feature of its own which
the other concept does not have
otherwise it will be the same concept.



2. A comparison of the two ideas in
question, i.e., the recognition of the
identity or non-identity between these
ideas. A square is a polygon having four
equal sides and four right sides. A
polygon is a figure having many
angles and hence many sides.

> There should be a mental comparison
or collaboration between the two
concepts.
From the given definition of each
idea, a common denominator
between the two is set: that of having
angles and sides. The identity of the
two ideas are thus established.



3. The mental act
pronouncing that the
ideas compared are in
agreement or
disagreement. This act
is the very essence of
a judgment. The mind
enunciates that A
square is a polygon
Simply:
1. Understand each
concept.
2. Compare the concepts
3. Enunciation about the
concept- either
agreement or
disagreement.
Judgment is the act whereby the
mind composes and divides.

Composes means affirmation
ex. Pedro is tall.

Divides means denial
ex. Juan is not a student.

B. PROPOSITION
PROPOSITION
- External
manifestation or
sign of
judgment
- A statement
that affirms or
denies
something
about a certain
reality or object.
Judgment
(analytic or
synthetic
judgment?)
KINDS OF PROPOSITION
1. Categorical Proposition
2. Hypothetical Proposition
KINDS OF PROPOSITION
1. Categorical Proposition
The affirmation or denial between
two concepts is expressed in a direct
or unconditional manner.
Ex. Man is a rational being.

Categorical Proposition is one that
expresses a positive, or a negative
judgment in an absolute manner, that
is, without any condition or
alternative.
E.g. 1) A body is a material substance.
E.g. 2) Today is Thursday.

Categorical Proposition may be:
a) Predicational: when it affirms or denies
a predicate of a subject in an absolute
manner. E.g. Students of FAITH are
hardworking.
b) Simple: when the proposition has a
single subject and single predicate. In
this aspect, only one judgment is
expressed.
e.g. Roses are red.
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
A proposition wherein the judgment is
done in an absolute manner.
A proposition that makes a direct
assertion
Relates two classes or categories:
subject term and predicate term

SUBJECT COPULA PREDICATE
4 TYPES OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITION (A, E, I, O propositions)
1. All Filipinos are honest people.
2. No Filipino is honest people.
3. Some Filipinos are honest people.
4. Not all Filipinos are honest people.
STANDARD FORM a categorical
proposition that expresses these
relationships with complete clarity
All Filipinos are honest people
Quantifier Subject Copula
Predicate
QUANTIFIERS
Specify how much of the subject class
is included in or excluded from the
predicate class.
All men are rational.
No man is an island.
Some men are criminals.
Not all men are criminals.
Note: tenses and numbers are irrelevant


QUANTITY OF PROPOSITION
Equivalent to the quantity of its subject
1. Singular the subject stands for a single
definite individual
Plato is a philosopher.
2. Particular the subject designates an
indefinite part of its total extension.
E.g. Some fruits are not edible.
3. Universal the subject applies to
every portion of the term being
indicated. E.g. All men are mortal.
QUANTIFIER OF PROPOSITION
UNIVERSAL:
All, any, anything, anyone, anybody,
always
Each, every, everything, everybody,
everyone
No, nothing, no one, nobody, never
Whatever, whoever, whichever
Articles like the, a and an (for universal
idea)


QUANTIFIER OF PROPOSITION
PARTICULAR:
Some, something, someone, somebody,
sometimes, few ,several, plenty, most,
majority, many, a good number,
Almost all, almost every, almost everything
, almost everyone, almost everybody, very
many, very few, practically all, practically
every, not all, not many, not every
The use of numbers like ten percent or 800
or 1 kilo
QUANTIFIER OF PROPOSITION
SINGULAR:
All superlatives (best, worst, excellent, etc.)
All demonstrative pronouns (that, this,
those, etc.)
All superlatives (best, worst, excellent, etc.)
All demonstrative pronouns (that, this,
those, etc.)
The use of article the (for specific object)
QUALITY OF PROPOSITION
Depends on whether it affirms or denies
class membership
The copula is the qualifier of the
proposition.
1. Affirmative all or some of the
subject are contained in the class of
the predicate
All men are mortals.
QUALITY OF PROPOSITION
2. Negative all or some of the subject
are not contained in the class of the
predicate
All dogs are not reptiles.

QUANTITY OF THE PREDICATE
Singular if the predicate indicates any
signs of singularity (proper noun)
The 13
th
president of RP is Joseph
Estrada.
Particular if the predicate is not
singular and copula is affirmative
Mario is a carpenter.
QUANTITY OF THE PREDICATE
Universal if the predicate is not
singular and copula is negative
Peter is not a reptile.

THE PORTRAIT

A man on a park bench
is looking at a small
portrait.
The man says, If
Brothers and sisters I
have none, this man's
father, is my father's
son.
Can you tell who the
person is in the
picture?
(SON)
KINDS OF PROPOSITION
2. Hypothetical Proposition
The affirmation or denial between two
concepts is expressed in an indirect and
conditional manner.
It is one that does not express an absolute
judgment, but a qualified one.
Ex. If you study your lessons, you will pass
in the examinations.
Ex. If man can think, then he is rational.
HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
Propositions that express
conditional judgment
Kinds:
1. Conditional
2. Disjunctive
3. Conjunctive
4. Bi-Conditional
Kinds of Hypothetical Proposition
1. CONDITIONAL PROPOSITION
One clause asserts something as true
provided that the other clause is true. (If
Then)
Unless, provided that, on condition that
Antecedent the condition of the
consequent (if)
Consequent the result of the condition
(then) Ex: If there is sacrifice, then there is
glory.
2. DISJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION
A proposition that expresses alternatives,
all of which can not be true, or together
false; but only one is true with the
exclusion of the rest.
Ex:
Either Pedro is an honest person or a liar.
(major premise)
A proposition is Either true, or false.
N.B.
For such proposition to be correct, it must
express alternatives which can not be
together true or together false.
3. CONJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION
Asserts that two alternatives cannot be
true at the same time.
It is a proposition that expresses the
incompatibility of two alternatives.
and, yet, but, however
Ex:
You cannot serve both God and Satan
simultaneously. (major premise)

Ex. 1) A suitor cannot both be married
and single; (major premise)
But your suitor is single, (affirmative)
Therefore, your suitor is not married.
(negative)
Ex. 2) The team cannot both be the
winner and the loser;
But their team is the winner, (affirmative)
Therefore, their team is not the loser.
(negative)


Note:
The conjunctive inference has only
this method: the major premise is a
conjunctive proposition, expressing
the impossibility of two alternatives
being true at the same time. The
minor premise is always an
affirmation of either of the two
alternatives and the conclusion is a
denial of the second alternative
(affirm = deny).
HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
BI-CONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS
Propositions introduced by the
connective if and only if

Ex:
I will graduate if and only if I will
pass the requirements.
HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
If strong typhoons come, then crops will
be destroyed.
A thing cannot exist and exist at the same
time.
Either you are from Batangas or you are
not.
HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
Either Taal Volcano is dormant or it is
active.
You are my mother if and only if I am your
son.
Provided that you register on time, then
you may vote on Election Day.

Proposition
- Derived from the latin word proponere
which means to put forward for
consideration, the proposition then is
defined as a statement which is either
true or false.
> it is the result of the second mental
operation which is JUDGMENT. It is
either affirming or denying the
relationship between the two.
Propositions are statements which
constitute the basic element in
reasoning. Their distinctive character is
that they assert that something is the
case or that something is not the case.
Their assertion may be true or false.
Propositions are therefore statements
that have a truth-value, that is, they have
the property of being true or false.
A PROPOSITION is a statement in
which anything whatsoever is affirmed or
denied. Example: A dog is an animal
A dog is not a cat. A proposition posits
simple existence. It affirms or denies the
subject. It is expressed by what
grammarians call a declarative
sentence. It must be distinguished from a
question, exclamation, wish, command &
entreaty.

Propositions differ from question,
commands, and examinations. Only
propositions can be either affirmed or
denied. Questions may be asked,
commands given, and exclamations
uttered, but none of them can be
affirmed or denied, or judged to be either
true or false.
Examples?
Proposition
is a perfect sentence which signifies truth
and falsehood by way of statement.

THE STRUCTURE OF A PROPOSITION
copula
subject predicate
The Structure/ Elements Of A Proposition
The subject and the predicate are
called the matter of the proposition,
because they are the materials out of
which the proposition is made.
The copula or bonding verb IS is
called the form, because it is the unifying
principle that maintains the structure of
the proposition and imparts to its
materials the nature of a proposition.
It should be noted that the Subject,
or the Predicate may be a compound
term, or a term with a dependent
clause (complex term).
E.g.
The Jerusalem Bible that you gave
me on my birthday is the best gift I
have received so far.
1.The Subject-term: it stands for the
person, animal, place or idea which is
what the proposition is talking about.
2. Copula a mental act of judgment
either affirming or denying the
relationship of the subject and
predicate.
Expressed in the ff: is, are (affirmation)
and is not, are not (denied of the
subject)
i.e. Peter is my classmate / Peter is not
my classmate.
Logic is difficult / Logic is not difficult.
Copula In the affirmative
proposition, the copula (is, am & are)
joins, unites or copulates the
predicate with the subject; the subject
is declared to exist as something
identical with the predicate. In the
negative copula (is not, am not & are
not) separates, or divides the predicate
from the subject.
Example: A dog is an animal A dog
is not a cat.
Note: For a proposition to be negative,
the particles must modify the copula
itself. If the negative particles modified
either the subject or the predicate, but
not the copula, the proposition is
affirmative. Example: Socrates is not
sick. Some are not seated. No cat has
nine tails. None of the students will go.
He will never go.

3. The Predicateterm: it stands for
what proposition is saying about the
subject.
Quality
The relation established between the
two terms of the proposition. If there is an
agreement between the two terms, then
the proposition is affirmative; if there is a
disagreement then the proposition is
negative.
Examples:
1.All FAITH students are intelligent.
(Affirmative)
2.Some students are friendly.
(Affirmative)
3.A house is not a home. (negative)
4.Some basketball players are not well-
paid. (negative)
The following are propositions:

Some people are dishonest.
Water is essential to life.
Two plus two equals four.
A machine is not an organism.

The copula determines the quality of
a proposition.(if there is an agreement
between the two terms, then the
proposition is affirmative; if there is a
disagreement then the proposition is
negative).
While there are propositions whose
subject or predicate, or both subject and
predicate are negative, their quantity will
still be determined by their copula.
Example:
1.The love of the Lord is unconditional.
While the predicate
term unconditional is negative in form,
the proposition is nevertheless
affirmative because of the copula is
which is affirmative.

2. Unfaithful wife is scorned.

3. That she is not the murderer is
uncertain.
Quantity:
It refers to the number of
individuals to whom the
subject term applies. If the proposition has
a universal
quantifier, it is a universal proposition. If
the proposition
has a particular quantifier, it is a particular
proposition.
The Four Categoricals
1. The A Proposition- is an affirmative
proposition with a singular or universal
subject term. Its logical form is
All S is P.
i.e. Every man is rational.
The Philippines is an archipelago.
This lesson is interesting.
A gift is a voluntary offering.
Universal/Singular affirmative
proposition
All security guards are watchful.
Adrian is my best friends
2. The E proposition- is a negative
proposition with a singular, or universal
subject-term. Its pattern is No S is P.

i.e. No stone is an organism.
None of the students is absent.
Nobody is exempted from the exam.
Nothing is left of the community.

Universal/Singular negative
proposition
No security guards are watchful
Adrian is not my best friend
3. The I proposition is an affirmative
proposition with a particular subject-term.
Its pattern is Some S is P.

i.e. Some people are rich.
Several drivers are apprehended.
Many are called but few are chosen.
Movies are fun.
Particular-affirmative proposition
Some security guards are
watchful

4. The O proposition is a negative
proposition with a particular subject-term.
Its pattern is either Some S is not P.
i.e. Some students are not athletes.
Many people are not rich.
Not everyone is happy about the result.
Not all that glitter is gold.
N.B. The qualifiers All and Every when
preceded by the particle not signify a
particular term, not a universal term.
Particular-negative proposition
Some security guards are not
watchful
Combination of Quality and Quantity:

Every proposition is:

A when it is universal or singular
affirmative ex. A man is a rational being.

E when it is universal or singular-
negative ex. No man is a plant.



Combination of Quality and Quantity:

I when it is particular-affirmative
ex. Some students are good.

O when it is particular-negative
ex. Some students are not wearing
I.D.
ALL ARE
ALL ARE NOT
AT LEAST
SOME ARE
AT LEAST
SOME ARE NOT
ALL ARE NOT
OR NONE ARE
AFFIRMATIVE
NEGATIVE
QUALITY
Q
U
a
N
T
I
T
Y


(only)
Possible propositional formulations
in each symbol:
A = All S are P.
Every S is P.
E = No S is P.
No S are P.
All S are not P.
Every S is not P.
I = Some S are P.
Many S are P.
Few S are P.
Most of S are P.
O = Some S are not P.
Opposition
of
Propositions
Types of opposition:
1.Contradictories
2.Contraries
3.Subcontraries
4.Subalterns
It is a Philosophical disagreement
or logical difference existing between
two propositions having the same
subject term and the same predicate
term but different as to their quantity
or quality or both. This mutual
exclusivity between concepts is called
Logical opposition.
TYPES OF LOGICAL PROPOSITION:

1.Contradictories a relation
which exist between propositions
that differ both in quality and
quantity. (A-0 and E-I
propositions are contradictories.)
Ex. Every priest is lovable. Some priests
are not lovable.
If it is true that every priest is lovable
(A)
It is false that some priests are not lovable
(O)
It is false that no priest is lovable
(E)
It is true that some priests are lovable.
( I )
2. Contraries a relation which
exists between universal
propositions that differ in quality
only.
(A-E propositions are
contraries.)

Ex. All men are wise. All men are
not wise.


Rule: Only one may be true. Both may be
false.
a)If one is true, the other is false
If it is true that all men are wise,
(A)
it is false that all men are not wise.
(E)
3. Subcontraries a relation which
exists between particular propositions
that differ in quality only.

(I & O propositions are subcontraries.)

Ex. Some men are gifted. Some
men are not gifted.
Rule:
Both may not be false;
both may be true.
This relationship exist between the
I and O propositions.
(only one may be true)
If one is false, the other is true.
if it is false that some men are gifted,
(I)
it is true that some men are not good.
(O)

B) If one is true, the other is undetermined.
if it is true that some men are good
(I)
it is undetermined that some men are not
good. (O)
4.Subalterns a relation
which exists between two
propositions having the
same quality but differing in
quantity. (A-I and E-O
propositions.)

Ex. All musicians are
temperamental.
Some musicians are
temperamental.
C S
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