Objective of a measurement

To determine a value of the measurand

To sample one value out of a universe of possible
values
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Variability in Measurement
when a measurement is repeated many times, one will
obtain many different answers
This observed variability in the results of repeated
measurements arises because influence quantities
that can affect the measurement result are not held
constant.
In general, there are many- if not infinitely many-
influence quantities affecting a measurement result
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Some concepts related to uncertainty

True value of a measurand is indeterminate, except
when known in terms of theory.

What is obtained from the measurement process an
estimate of or approximation to the true value.

Accuracy of measurement
the closeness of agreement between a test result and
the accepted reference value
A statement of results of measurement is complete
only if it contains both the values attributed to the
measurand and the uncertainty in measurement
associated with that value.

Without such an indication, measured results can not
be compared, either among themselves or with
reference values given in a specification or standard
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Systematic and random components of uncertainty
affecting the observed results

Random components arise from unpredictable and
spatial variations of influence quantities, like:
the way connections are made or the
measurement method employed
uncontrolled environmental conditions
inherent instability of the measuring equipment
personal judgement of the operator, etc.

These cannot be eliminated totally, but can be
reduced by exercising appropriate controls.
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Systematic components
those reported in the calibration certificate of
the reference standards/ instruments used
different influence conditions at the time of
measurement compared with those prevalent
at the time of calibration of the standard etc.
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Uncertainty of Measurement
a parameter characterizing the range of values
within which the value of the measurand can be
said to lie within a specified level of confidence

Uncertainty (of measurement) Parameter,
associated with the result of a measurement, that
characterizes the dispersion of the values that
could reasonably be attributed to the measurand.
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ISO/ IEC 17025 Measurement Uncertainty -
Requirements
5.4.6.1 Calibration laboratories and Testing
laboratories carrying their own calibrations shall
estimate measurement uncertainty of calibrations

The method of estimation of measurement uncertainty
for calibrations where traceability is not applicable/
feasible becomes less rigorous

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ISO/ IEC 17025 Measurement Uncertainty -
Requirements
5.4.6.2 - Testing laboratories shall have and apply
procedures for estimating uncertainty of
measurement

Nature of the test method may preclude rigorous,
meteorologically and statistically valid calculation of
uncertainty of measurement

Laboratory shall at least attempt to identify all
uncertainty components, make a reasonable
estimation and ensure that the form of reporting of
result does not give a wrong impression of
uncertainty
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ISO/ IEC 17025 Measurement Uncertainty -
Requirements
Note 1 - Degree of rigor depends on:
Requirements of the method
Requirements of the client
Existence of narrow limits on specification
conformance

Note 2 - In cases where a well-recognized test method
specifies limits to the values of the major sources of
uncertainty and specifies the form of presentation of
calculated results, the laboratory is considered to have
satisfied this clause by following the test method and
reporting instructions
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ISO/ IEC 17025 Measurement Uncertainty -
Reporting Requirements
5.10.3.1 c) Information on uncertainty is needed in test
reports when it is relevant to the validity or application
of the test results, when a customers instruction so
requires, or when the uncertainty affects compliance to
a specification limit

5.10.1 - In the case of a written agreement with the
customer, results may be reported in a simplified way
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Five categories of test methods
I. Qualitative
No uncertainty calculations required
Examples: Ignitability, Microbiological Screening

II. Well recognized methods that specify limits to
uncertainty contributions
No further uncertainty calculations required
Examples: Flash point, Hardness, Vicat Softening
Temperature, Mooney Viscosity Hardness
(Brinell, Vickers), Tension & Compression Proof, pH
of Water Extract
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Five categories of test methods contd.
III. Published methods that do not specify limits to
uncertainty sources and/ or reporting Format
Uncertainty estimated using standard deviation of
laboratory control samples
Examples: Alloy analysis, Medical testing

Problems: Normal process for analyzing control
samples may lead to an underestimate of uncertainty
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Five categories of test methods, continued
IV. Methods requiring identification of major
uncertainty components and reasonable
estimate of uncertainty
Examples: One-off tests

V. Methods requiring full uncertainty analysis
consistent with ISO Guide to the Expression
Of Uncertainty in Measurement
Example: Reference material value assignment,
Dimensional Inspection
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Estimation of measurement uncertainty needs

Understanding the objective of the measurement
Identification of the factors influencing the
measurement result

It depends on detailed knowledge of the nature of the
measurand and of the measurement.
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The evaluation of uncertainty is neither a routine task
nor a purely mathematical one
Even with industry standard test methods that set
tolerances on all the various parts and features of a
testing machine, places limits on the environmental
conditions, and specifies the method of preparation
of the samples, the nature of the material itself may
be the major source of variability in test results
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Since uncertainty evaluation is neither a purely
mathematical task nor a merely routine task, the
details of its procedures. as applied to a given test,
can never be codified to the point of complete
unambiguousness
Even after correcting for known systematic effects,
the corrected measurement result is still only an
estimate of the value of the measurand because of
random effects and because our knowledge of the
magnitudes of the corrections is itself only an
estimate
uncertainty of a measurement must not be
confused with the remaining unknown error
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Sources of uncertainty in measurement
incomplete definition of the measurand
imperfect realization of the definition of the
measurand
nonrepresentative sampling
inadequate knowledge of the effects of
environmental conditions and their imperfect
measurement
personal bias in reading analog instruments,
including the effects of parallax
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Sources of uncertainty in measurement
finite resolution or discrimination threshold
inexact values of measurement standards and
reference materials
inexact values of constants and other parameters
obtained from external sources and used in the
data-reduction algorithm
approximations and assumptions incorporated in
the measurement method and procedure
variations in repeated observations of the
measurand under apparently identical conditions
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If all of the quantities on which the result of a
measurement depend could be varied, then its
uncertainty could be evaluated based purely on a
statistical treatment of experimental data.
But this is seldom possible in practice because of the
time and expense involved in such an exhaustive
experimental evaluation of uncertainty
Whenever possible, the use of check standards and
control charts (often called measurement assurance)
should be used to establish that a measurement
system is under statistical control
This data should be used as part of the effort to obtain
a reasonable estimate of the measurement uncertainty
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If the input quantities are designated as x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
,
then we can write the functional relationship between
the measurement result y and the input quantities as
y = f (x
1,
x
2,
....... x
n
)
This function becomes very complicated in many
testing measurements
If a laboratory has sufficient data, analysis by
regorous method is not necessary to satisfy the
measurement uncertainty requirements of ISO/IEC
17025: 1999
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Types of Uncertainty Estimation
Type A uncertainty estimate is an estimate derived
from the statistical analysis of experimental data
Some uncertainty contributors cannot be evaluated
statistically, or else a statistical evaluation would be
impractical, or a statistical evaluation may simply be
unnecessary.
In these cases, the magnitude and associated
uncertainty of an influence quantity has to be estimated
based on past experience, taken from a handbook,
extracted from a calibration report, etc. Estimates
obtained in this way are called Type B estimates
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It will usually be the case that the best estimate of
the value of a measurand will be the average of
several test results
The experimental standard deviation s characterizes
the variability or spread, of the observed values x
i

It is given by the equation
s = [(x
1
x
0
)
2
+ (x
2
x
0
)
2
+ . (x
n
x
0
)
2
] / (n-1)
It is best to use a calculator or spreadsheet program like Excel
for these calculations
Standard Uncertainty = s/ n

Sensitivity coefficients are essentially conversion
factors that allow conversion of the units of an input
quantity into the units of the measurand
Mathematically, sensitivity coefficients are obtained
from partial derivatives of the model function f with
respect to the input quantities
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Sensitivity coefficients can also be
evaluated experimentally. In cases
where the model function is not
known, obviously it is not possible to
determine the sensitivity coefficients
mathematically
The ISO Guide for Uncertainty of Measurement relies
on identifying and quantifying the uncertainties of the
input quantities and expressing those uncertainties
as one standard deviation.
The combined standard uncertainty is consequently a
standard deviation and for a normal distribution
u = (u
a
)
2
+ [(u
b1
)
2
+ (u
b2
)
2
+ . (u
bn
)
2
]
U
a
Type A component of uncertainty
U
b1
,

u
b2

U
bn
Type B components of uncertainty
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X
0
X
0
+ s (68.3 %)

X
0
+ 2s (95.5 %)

X
0
+ 3s (99.73 %)
X
0
Mean
S Standard Deviation

Normal Distribution
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One standard deviation encompasses approximately
68% of possible values of the measurand
For 95% confidence limits coverage factor of 2 is
used Two standard deviations
SPECIFYING THE MEASURAND
1. Any uncertainty analysis must begin with a clear
specification of the measurand
2. In complex tests, it is not necessarily clear what is
being measured and what is influencing the
measurement result.
3. Level of detail in the definition of the measurand
depends on the required level of accuracy of the
measurement.
4. The specification of a measurand may require
statements about quantities such as time,
temperature, and pressure.
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MODELING THE MEASUREMENT
Sources of uncertainty in measurement
1. incomplete definition of the measurand
2. imperfect realization of the definition of the
measurand
3. nonrepresentative sampling (the sample measured
may not represent the defined measurand)
4. inadequate knowledge of the effects of environmental
conditions on the measurement or imperfect
measurement of environmental conditions
5. personal bias in reading analog instruments, including
the effects of parallax
6. finite resolution or discrimination threshold
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Sources of uncertainty in measurement contd.
7. inexact values of measurement standards and
reference materials
8. inexact values of constants and other parameters
obtained from external sources and used in the data-
reduction algorithm
9. approximations and assumptions incorporated in the
measurement method and procedure
10. variations in repeated observations of the measurand
under apparently identical conditions
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Usually the mathematical model is always incomplete
Relevant input quantities should be varied to the
extent possible so that the uncertainty estimate can be
based, as much as possible, on experimental data
the use of check standards and control charts (often
called measurement assurance) to ensure that the
measurement system is under statistical control,
these data should be used as part of the effort to
obtain a reasonable estimate of the measurement
uncertainty.
When the observed data shows that the mathematical
model is incomplete, then the model should be revised
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TYPE A EVALUATION OF STANDARD UNCERTAINTY
Type A uncertainty estimate is an estimate derived
from the statistical analysis of experimental data.
Type A does not refer to the nature of the uncertainty
contributor itself
Type A uncertainty estimates are not necessarily
random components of uncertainty
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It will usually be the case that the best estimate of
the value of a measurand will be the average of
several test results
The experimental standard deviation s characterizes
the variability or spread, of the observed values x
i

It is given by the equation
s = [(x
1
x
0
)
2
+ (x
2
x
0
)
2
+ . (x
n
x
0
)
2
] / (n-1)
It is best to use a calculator or spreadsheet program like Excel
for these calculations
Standard Uncertainty = s/ n
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TYPE B EVALUATION OF STANDARD UNCERTAINTY
Some uncertainty contributors
cannot be evaluated statistically
else a statistical evaluation would be impractical
a statistical evaluation may simply be unnecessary.


past experience
taken from a handbook,
extracted from a calibration report etc.
In these cases, uncertainty of an influence quantity has
to be estimated based on



Estimates obtained in this way are called type B
estimates.
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SENSITIVITY COEFFICIENTS
Sensitivity coefficients are essentially conversion
factors that allow one to convert the units of an
input quantity into the units of the measurand.
Sensitivity coefficients are also measures of how
much change is produced in the measurand by
changes in an input quantity.
Mathematically, sensitivity coefficients are obtained
from partial derivatives of the model function f with
respect to the input quantities.
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Combined Uncertainty
Type A Component of uncertainty U
a

Type B Components U
b1
, U
b2
, U
b3 ......
Type B estimate = U
b
= U
b1
2
+ U
b2
2
+ U
b3
2

....


Combined Uncertainty (U
c
) = U
a
2
+ U
b
2


If U
1
, U
2
, U
3
........ are the uncertainty components and
corresponding sensitivity coeficients are C
1
, C
2
, C
3
........
the the combined uncertainty is

U
c
= C
1
U
1
2
+ C
2
U
2
2
+ C
3
U
3
2

....
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Although the combined standard uncertainty can be used
to express the uncertainty of a measurement result, in
many commercial, industrial, or regulatory applications, it
is often necessary to give a measure of uncertainty that
defines an interval about the measurement result that
may be expected to encompass a larger fraction of the
values (95%)

The expanded uncertainty U is obtained by multiplying
the combined standard uncertainty by a coverage factor
k.
U = KU
c
K is chosen from Student t distribution (for df < 30) or
Normal distribution (for df > 30) and confidence level
(95%)
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Reasonability
Every uncertainty estimate should be subjected to a
Reasonability check
Uncertainty estimates that look strange- either too big
or too small- should be re-evaluated
Engineering tolerances
Long experience with the mechanical properties
Look for
Mathematical blunders,
Uncertainty contributors which have been poorly
estimated or completely neglected.
Finally revise the mathematical model if needed
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UNCERTAINTY BUDGETS
A well-documented uncertainty evaluation contains
Identification and value of each input estimate
Its standard uncertainty
A description of how they were obtained
Degrees of freedom for the standard uncertainty of
each input estimate
How they were obtained
Functional relationship between the measurand and
the input quantities
Sensitivity coefficients
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Uncertainty Budget
Commonly used Distributions
Distribution Coverage factor @
95 % CL

Normal

1.96 (or 2)

Rectangular

3

Triangular

6

U shaped

2

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SUMMERY OF THE METHOD
1. Specify the measurand
2. Derive the mathematical model
3. Quantify the influence quantities
4. Evaluate the standard uncertainty of each influence
quantity
5. Evaluate sensitivity coefficients and covariances
6. Calculate the measurement result
7. Determine the combined standard uncertainty
8. Determine the expanded uncertainty
9. Report the measurement result and associated
uncertainty estimate
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Example:
Volume of pipette is estimated by weighing water
dispensed by the pipette and dividing by the density of
water, taken from standard tables at the measurement
temperature
v = w/ d
Sensitivity coefficient for weight (C
sw
)

v/ w = 1/d = v/ w
Sensitivity coefficient for density (C
sd
)
v/ d = -w/d
2
= -v/ d
Uncertainty in volume measurement
U
v
= (C
sw
)
2
U
w
2
+ (C
sd
)
2
U
d
2
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We measure 5 (n = 5) times weights and note
down corresponding temperatures
Weight Temperature
Mean value W
0
T
0
Standard deviation s
w
s
t

Type A component s
w
/ n s
t
/ n
Type B components
1. Calibration U
bw1
U
bt1
2. Resolution U
bw2
U
bt2

Combined U
w
= U
aw
2
+
U
bw1
2
+
U
bw2
2
uncertainty U
t
= U
at
2
+
U
bt1
2
+
U
bt2
2
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Density of water at T
0
= d
0
from the tables
Uncertainty of density measurement corresponding to
U
t
uncertainty measurement in temperature = U
d
Volume of pipette V
0
= W
0
/ d
0


Uncertainty estimate in volume measurement
U
v
= (C
sw
)
2
U
w
2
+ (C
sd
)
2
U
d
2

Volume of pipette = V
0
+ KU
v
K is the coverage factor = 2 @ 95 % Confidence limits