The Circulatory System

Unit 4
I. Blood
A. Terms
1. Agglutination:
the process by which
cells stick together to
form clumps
2. Antibody:
a protein in the plasma
produced by a type of
activated WBC. Once
produced, it binds to
an antigen to
neutralize it
3. Antigen:
a protein on the plasma
membrane of RBC that
stimulate certain WBC
to produce antibodies
4. Embolus:
a substance
transported by the
blood. Examples: blood
clots, air bubbles
5. Hemostasis:
the stoppage of
bleeding
6. Thrombus:
a blood clot that has
formed in a blood
vessel
B. Functions
Maintenance of
homeostasis by:
1. Transportation of
respiratory gases,
nutrients, metabolic
wastes and hormones
2. Protection against
harmful
microorganisms and
toxins, and fluid loss
3. Regulation of acid-base
balance and body
temperature
C. Properties
Color: red due to
hemoglobin
Volume: males 5 6
liters; females 4 5 liters
Viscosity: 5 times
greater than water
pH: between 7.35 and
7.45
D. Components:
All of the following
components of blood are
produced in red bone
marrow
1. Plasma: the liquid
portion of blood. It is
mostly water with some
solutes such as plasma
proteins (albumins,
globulins & fibrinogen)

2. Red Blood Cells: RBCs:
erythrocytes
Biconcave so that they
can carry a maximum
amount of hemoglobin
Hgb binds to O
2
which is
delivered to the cells and
Carries away CO
2
The production of RBCs
is regulated by a
hormone (erythropoietin)
secreted by cells in the
kidneys
3. White Blood Cells: WBCs
Leukocytes
Protects the body from
disease
Lymphocytes: produce
antibodies
Basophils: cause
inflammation
Neutrophils and
monocytes:
are phagocytic
Eosinophils:
battle allergens through
phagocytosis
4. Thrombocytes/Platelets
Plays an important role
in blood clotting
Components 2, 3 and 4 are
formed elements
E. Hemostasis
The stoppage of bleeding
1. Blood vessel spasm:
the smooth muscle
tissue in the walls of
the blood vessels
contract
Resulting in the
temporary closure of
the opening
2. Platelet plug formation
When platelets arrive at
the site of blood vessel
breakage, they
Increase in size and
become irregular in
shape
And their surface
becomes sticky
At the site of the break
in the blood vessel,
platelets stick to one
another and to collagen
fibers in the blood
vessel
Forming a clump that
can seal a small break
3. Coagulation
The most effective and
complex of the blood
clotting mechanisms
It involves a series of
events that results in the
formation of a network
that traps the formed
elements creating a
barrier over the site
The process of
coagulation takes
approximately 2 to 8
minutes to complete
A lack of any of the
factors necessary can
lead to an inability of the
blood to clot
Dietary deficiencies
(especially in vitamin K),
liver disease or
hemophilia can result in
an inability to form clots
In some cases, a blood
clot may form when it is
not needed. This can
happen if the inner wall
of the blood vessel is
rough or if it contains an
accumulation of fatty
deposits (as seen in
atherosclerosis)
The blood clot that
forms is called a
thrombus which can
cause death if it blocks
the flow of blood to a
vital organ
If the blood clot
detaches and moves, it is
called an embolus. It can
be fatal if it lodges in a
blood vessel feeding into
a vital organ
F. Hemopoiesis
The process of blood cell
formation in the red
bone marrow
All of the formed
elements originate from
a single population of
cells
called stem cells
These cells differentiate
to form the different cell
lines, each of which lead
to a particular type of
formed element
G. Blood Groups
The blood groups are
named based upon the
antigens found in their
blood.
There are only two types
of antigens: A and B
There are antibodies in
the plasma that form
early in life and react
with the antigens not
contained in blood
Blood
type
antigen antibody
A A Anti-B
B B Anti-A
AB A & B Neither
O NONE Anti-A &
Anti-B
A blood transfusion
involves the introduction
of blood from an
alternate source. If the
two blood types are not
compatible,
agglutination occurs
creating a transfusion
reaction

In a transfusion reaction,
RBCs are destroyed, hgb
and bilirubin enter the
body eventually causing
kidney failure and death
Compatibility
Blood
type
Donate
to
Receive
from
A A & AB A & O
B B & AB B & O
AB AB ALL
O ALL O
Rh system
It was originally
identified in, and named
after, the Rhesus monkey
Rh antigens are found on
the RBC membranes
The presence of the Rh
antigen is indicated by
having a positive blood
type
The absence of the Rh
antigen is indicated by a
negative blood type
The antibodies (anti-Rh)
for the antigens are not
formed until the Rh-
negative person becomes
exposed to the antigen
Sensitization can occur
through blood
transfusions or through
pregnancy.
During a first pregnancy,
an Rh-negative female
carrying an Rh-positive
fetus, presents no major
health risk.
During delivery, the
placental membrane may
tear allowing the two
bloods to mix

This exposure may
sensitize the mothers
immune system causing
her to create anti-Rh
antibodies
In subsequent Rh-
positive pregnancies, the
antibodies will cross the
placenta and cause
agglutination with the
fetal RBCs
This causes a condition
called hemolytic disease or
erythroblastosis fetalis
Brain damage or death may
result unless blood
transfusions are performed
before birth
If the situation is
detected with the first
pregnancy, sensitization
can be avoided through
treatment with a
substance called
RhoGAM
II. The Cardiovascular System
A. Structure of the Heart
1. Pericardium
The outer covering of
the heart
Layers of the
pericardium:
Parietal Pericardium:
tough outermost layer
Visceral Pericardium:
innermost, thin layer
Pericardial Cavity: the
space in between
2. Heart Wall
Consists of 3 layers:
Epicardium: thin, outer
membrane
Myocardium: middle
layer forming the bulk of
the heart; the primary
functional tissue
Endocardium: thin, inner
layer
3. Heart Chambers
2 Atria:
Superior chambers
Thin walled
Receiving chambers for
incoming blood
Separated by interatrial
septum
2 Ventricles
Inferior chambers
Thick walled
Serve as pumps for
pushing blood out of the
heart
Separated by
interventricular septum
http://www.youtube.co
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4. Heart Valves
Atrioventricular (AV)
valves
Allow one-way flow of
blood from the atria to
the ventricles
They close during
ventricular contraction
Tricuspid valve:
Between the right atrium
and right ventricle
Bicuspid or Mitral valve:
Between the left atrium
and left ventricle
Semilunar (SL) Valves
Allow the one-way flow
of blood from the
ventricles to the
pulmonary trunk and
aorta
They close during
ventricular relaxation
Pulmonary valve:
Between the right
ventricle and the
pulmonary trunk
Aortic valve:
Between the left
ventricle and the aorta
5. Blood Flow
Through the heart:
Right atrium
through the tricuspid
valve to
right ventricle
through the pulmonary
valve
to the lungs through the
pulmonary arteries
blood re-enters the heart
through the pulmonary
veins into
the left atrium
through the mitral valve
into
the left ventricle
through the aortic valve
into
the aorta
To the Heart
Right and left coronary
arteries branch from the
base of the aorta to
supply the heart wall.
B. Physiology
1. Cardiac cycle
Contraction of both
atria
Contraction of both
ventricles
Pressure changes
following the
contraction/relaxation
cycles
provides the force
necessary to move the
blood
2. Heart Sounds
LUB:
AV valves closing
DUB:
SL valves closing
3. Regulation of heart activity
The heart does not
require external
stimulation for
contractions to occur
There is an intrinsic
regulating system within
the heart wall
Specific pace-setting
cells in heart muscle
send electrical signals to
adjacent cells
Every cardiac muscle cell
is initiated by these
pace-setting cells
The main site of pace-
setters is in the
sinoatrial node.
Because of this, the SA
node is also known as
the pacemaker as it
initiates each cardiac
cycle.
C. Blood Vessels
Tubes that carry blood
Including:
arteries, arterioles
capillaries
veins, venules
1. Arteries and Arterioles
Carry blood away from
the heart
Middle layer has smooth
muscles and elastic
fibers
Because of this, arteries
are able to contract
and flex with the flow
of blood
As arteries extend from
the heart, they become
progressively smaller
becoming arterioles
which are much thinner
Arterioles branch into
tiny capillaries

2. Capillaries
The smallest vessels in
the body
Thin-walled tubes that
permit the exchange of
materials between the
blood and interstitial
fluid
The capillary wall is
composed of a single
layer of flattened cells
Capillaries are so small
that only one RBC can
pass through at a time
Capillaries have pores
that allow fluid from the
bloodstream to leak
through to the areas
surrounding the cells
This is interstitial fluid
3. Venules and Veins
Three-layered tubes that
carry blood toward the
heart
Capillaries join to
venules which enlarge to
form veins
The walls of veins are
much thinner than
arteries
Veins contain less
smooth muscle and
elastic fibers than
arteries
Because of this, veins are
much less elastic and do
not contract and flex as
easily as arteries do
The large size of veins
allows them to hold large
amounts of blood
~65% of the total blood
supply is within the
veins at any given time
Even stillthey are
usually only partially
filled and are slightly
collapsed
At other times, veins
may fill completely
causing the wall to
become distended
This change in blood
volume causes a
corresponding change in
blood pressure
Because of this, when
the flow of blood reaches
the veins from the
venules, the pressure
may not be high enough
to push the blood
upwards towards the
heart
To maintain a one-way
direction of blood
movement,
1. Veins contain valves
similar to the
semilunar valves of the
heart

2. Respiratory and
skeletal muscles
squeeze veins
preventing the
backflow of blood

D. Circulatory Pathways
I. Pulmonary circulation
The pathway between
the heart and the lungs
The purpose of this
pathway is for the
oxygenation of blood
Blood lower in oxygen
and higher in CO
2

leaves the heart from:
1. the right ventricle
2. through the pulmonary
semilunar valve
3. to the pulmonary trunk
4. which branches into
the right and left
pulmonary arteries
5. Which branch into
smaller arteries,
6. then into arterioles,
7. then into pulmonary
capillaries

8. which form networks
that surround the air
sacs of the lungs
9. Gas exchange occurs
between the pulmonary
capillaries and the air
sacsO
2
is loaded onto
the RBCs and CO
2
is
released

10.pulmonary capillaries
drain into venules
which unite to form the
two pulmonary veins
exiting each lung
11. the four pulmonary
veins enter the left
atrium

II. Systemic Circulation
The vessels that extend
from the left ventricle
through the body to the
right atrium of the heart
providing fresh blood to
all body tissues (except
the lungs)
Bringing:
oxygenated blood
nutrients from the
digestive tract
hormones from
endocrine glands
enzymes and proteins
WBCs to fight infection
to the tissues
Taking:
Carbon dioxide
nonprotein nitrogenous
waste
away from the tissues
1. Blood leaves the left
ventricle
2. through the aortic
semilunar valve
3. into the aorta
4. through the thoracic
and abdominal cavities
5. branching off
throughout the body
6. subdividing into
arterioles and capillaries
7. joining together into
venules, then veins
8. Draining into the superior
and inferior vena cava
9. Which enter into the right
atrium