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this is a discussion about the musculoskeletal system. comprises the anatomy and physiology of muscles and bones all over the body and how to take care of it.
this is a discussion about the musculoskeletal system. comprises the anatomy and physiology of muscles and bones all over the body and how to take care of it.
this is a discussion about the musculoskeletal system. comprises the anatomy and physiology of muscles and bones all over the body and how to take care of it.
known as the locomotor system) is an organ system that gives animals the ability to move using the muscular and skeletal systems. The musculoskeletal system provides: 1. form 2. stability, and 3. movement to the human body. Musculoskeletal system is made up of the bodys bones: Skeleton Muscles Cartillage Tendons Ligaments Joints Connective tissues (described as the tissue that supports and binds tissue and organs together) The musculoskeletal systems primary functions include supporting the body, allowing motion and protecting vital organs. The skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of hematopoietic system. There are, however, diseases and disorders that may render the function and overall effectiveness of the system. These diseases can be difficult to diagnose due to the close relation of the musculoskeletal system refers to the system having its muscles attached to an internal skeletal system. However, hydrostatic musculoskeletal systems contain muscles attached to an external exoskeleton in order to function and maintain shape. STRUCTURE IN HUMANS A. SKELETAL Skeletal The human skeleton is a complex structure with two distinct divisions. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. The vertebral column is made up of 33 separate vertebrae separated by cartilaginous disk that allow movement. The ribs contain cartilage that allow the rib cage to flex breathing. The appendicular skeleton is the remaining 126 bones that are in the arms, legs and pelvis. The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones in the head and trunk of the human body. It is composed of five parts; the human skull, the ossicles of the inner ear, the hyoid bone of the throat, the chest and the vertebral column the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton together form the complete skeleton. flat bones houses the brain, spinal cord, and other vital organs. Normal count of the human skeletal system Skull (22) Cranial Bones (8) Parietal (2) Temporal (2) Frontal (1) Occipital (1) Ethmoid (1) Sphenoid (1) Normal count of the human skeletal system Skull (22) Facial bones (14) Maxilla (2) Zygomatic (2) Mandible (1) Nasal (2) Palatine (2) Inferior nasal concha (2) Lacrimal (2) Vomer (1) Normal count of the human skeletal system Auditory ossicles Ossicles (6) Malleus (2) Incus (2) Stapes (2) Normal count of the human skeletal system Hyoid bone hyoid bone (1) U-shape bone located in the neck. It anchors the tongue and is associated with swallowing. Normal count of the human skeletal system Vertebral column Vertebral column (33) Cervical vertebrae (7) Thoracic vertebrae (12) Lumbar vertebrae (5) Sacrum (5- fused) Coccyx (4- fused, varies between 3-5) Normal count of the human skeletal system Ribs Thoracic cage (25) Sternum (1) Ribs (24) Components of the skull Eight bones from the neurocranium (brain case), a protectivee vault of bone surrounding the brain and brain stem. Fourteen bones form the splanchnocranium, which comprises the bones supporting the face. Encased within the temporal bones are the six auditory ossicles of the middle ear. The hyoid bone, supporting the larynx, is usually not considered as part of the skull, as it is the only bone that does not articulate with other bones of the skull. The skull also contains the sinus cavities, which are air-filled cavities lined with respiratory epithelium, which also lines the large airways. The exact functions of the sinuses are debatable; they contribute to lessening the weight of the skull with a minimal reduction in strength, they contribute to ressonance of the voice, and assist in the warming and moistening of air drawn in through the nasal cavities. A typical vertebra consists of two essential parts: an anterior (front) segment, which is the vertebral body; and a posterior part- the vertebral (neural) arch- which encloses the vertebral arch is formed by a pair of pedicles and a pair of laminae, and supports seven processes, four articular, two transverse, and one spinous, the latter also being known as the neural spine. When the vertebrae are articulated with each other, the bodies form a strong pillar for the support of the head and trunk, and the vertebral foramina constitute a canal for the protection of the medulla spinalis (spinal cord). In between every pair of vertebrae are two apertures, the intervertebral foramina, one on either side, for the transmission of the spinal nerves and vessels. Two transverse process and one spinous process are posterior (behind) the vertebral body. The spinous process comes out the back, one transverse process comes out the left, and one on the right. The spinous process of the cervical and lumbar region can be felt through the skin. Superior and inferior articular facets on each vertebra act to restrict the range of movement possble. These facets are joined together by a thin portion of the neural arch called the pars interarticularis. Classification The centra of the vertebra can be classified based upon the fusion of its elements. In aspidospondyly, bones such as the neural spine, the pleurocentrum and the intercentrum are separate ossifications. Fused elements however, classify a vertebra as having holospondyly. A vertebra can also be described in terms of the shape of the ends of the centra. Humans are said to be acoelous, or with flat ends. These flat ends of the centra are especially good at supporting and distributing comprehensive forces. Amphicoelus vertebra is represented by both ends of the centra being concave. This shape is common in fish, where most motion is limited. Amphicoelus centra often are integrated with a full notochord. Procoelus vertebra are atriorly concave, and posteriorly convex. An opisthocoelus vertebra, however is quite the opposite, where the vertebra displays posterior convexity, and anterior concavity. Heterocoelus vertebrae are saddle shaped at each end of the centra. This type of configuration is seen in turtles that retract their necks, and birds, because it permits extensive lateral and vertical flexion motion without stretching the nerve cord too extensively or wringing it about its long axis. Regions Orientation of vertebral column on surface. T3 is at level of medial part of spine of scapula. T7 is at inferior angle of the scapula. L4 is at the highest point of iliac crest. S2 is at the level of posterior superior iliac spine. Furthermore, C7 is easily localized as a prominence at the lower part of the neck. 1. Cervical vertebrae These are generally small and delicate. Their spinous processes are short (with the exception of C2 and C7, which have palpable spinous process). Numbered from top to bottom from C1-C7, atlas (C1) and axis (C2), are the vertebrae that allow the neck and head so much movement. For the most part, the atlanto- occipital joint allows the skull to move up and down, while the atlanto-axial joint allows the upper neck to twist left and right. The axis also sits upon the first intervertebral disk of the spinal column. All mammals except manatees and sloths have seven cervical vertebrae, whatever the length of the neck. Cervical vertebrae possess transverse foramina to allow for the vertebral arteries to pass through on their way to the foramen magnum to end in the Circle of Willis. These are the smallest, lightest vertebrae and the vertebral foramina are triangular in shape. The spinous process are short and often bifurcated. (the spinous process of C7, however, is not bifurcated, and is substantially longer than that of the other cervical spinous processes) 2. Thoracic vertebrae Their transverse processes have surfaces that articulate with the ribs. Some rotation can occur between the thoracic vertebrae, but their connection with the rib cage prevents much flexion or other excursion. They may also be known as dorsal vertebrae, in the human context. Bodies are roughly heart-shaped and are about as wide anterio-posteriorly as they are in the transverse dimension. Vertebral foramina are roughly circular in shape. 3. Lumbar vertebrae These vertebrae are very robust in construction, as they must support more weight than other vertebrae. They allow significant flexion and extension, moderate lateral flexion (side-bending), and a small degree of rotation. The discs between these vertebrae create a lumbar lordosis (curvature that is concave posteriorly) in the human spine. 4. Sacral vertebrae There are 5 vertebrae (S1-S5). They are fused in maturity, with no intervertebral discs. 5. Coccygeal vertebrae There are 3-5 vertebrae (Co1-Co5), with no intervertebral discs. Many animals have greater number of tail vertebrae and, in animals, they are more commonly known as caudal vertebrae. Pain in the coccyx (tailbone) is known as coccydynia. Human rib cage The human rib cage, also known as the thoracic cage, is a bony and cartilaginous structure which surrounds the thoracic (chest) cavity and supports the pectoral (shoulder) girdle, forming a core portion of the human skeleton. A typical human ribcage consists of 24 ribs, the sternum, costal cartilages, and the 12 thoracic vertebrae. It, along with the skin and associated fascia and muscles make up the thoracic wall, and provides attachments for the muscles of the neck, thorax, upper abdomen and back. The human rib cage is a component of the human respiratory system. It encloses the thoracic cavity, which contains the lungs. An inhalation is accomplished when the muscular diaphragm, at the floor of the thoracic cavity, contracts and flattens, while contraction of intercostal muscles lift the rib cage up and out. These actions produce an increase in volume and a resulting partial vacuum, or negative pressure, in the thoracic cavity resulting in atmospheric pressure pushing air into the lungs, inflating them. An exhalation results when the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, and elastic recoil of the rib cage and lungs expels the air. All ribs are attached in the back to the thoracic vertebrae. The upper seven are called true ribs (costae verae, vertebrosternal ribs, I- VII ) are attached in the front to the sternum by means of costal cartillage. Due to their elasticity they allow movement when inhaling and exhaling. The 8 th , 9 th , 10 th ribs are called false ribs (costae spuricae, vertebrochondral ribs, VIII- X), and join with the costal cartillages of the ribs above. The 11 th and 12 th ribs are known as floating ribs (costae fluitantes, vertebral ribs, XI-XII), as they do not have any anterior connection to the sternum. The spaces between the ribs are known as intercostal spaces; they contain the intercostal muscles, nerves and arteries. The human rib parts: The head is the end of a rib closest to the vertebral column. The costovertebral joints are the articulations that connect the heads of the ribs to the thoracic vertebrae. The neck is the flattened portion which extends lateralward from the head. The tubercle Is an eminence on the posterior surface. The angle bending part. The costal grove is a grove between the ridge of the internal surface of the rib and the inferior border. Atypical ribs The atypical ribs are the 1 st , 2 nd and 11 th to 12 th . The first rib is a shaft that is wide and nearly horizontal and has the sharpest curve of the seven true ribs. Its head has a single facet to articulate with the first thoracic vertebra (T1). It has also two groves for the subclavian vessels, which are separated by the scalene tubercle. The second rib is thinner, less curved, and longer than the first rib. It has two facets to articulate with T2 and T1, and a tubercle for muscles to attach to. The 11 th to 12 th ribs have only one facet on their heads; the 11 th and 12 th ribs are short with no necks or tubercles and terminate in the abdominal wall before fusing with the costal cartillages. Breathing Breathing takes oxygen in and carbon dioxide out of the body. Aerobic organisms require oxygen to create energy via respiration, in the form of the metabolism of energy-rich molecules such as glucose. The medical term for normal relaxed breathing is eupnea. Breathing is only part of the processes of delivering oxygen to where it is needed in the body and removing carbon dioxide waste. The process of gas exchange occurs in the alveoli by passive diffusion of gasses between the alveolar gas and the blood passing by in the lung capillaries. Once in the blood the heart powers the flow of dissolved gasses around the body in the circulation. As well as carbon dioxide, breathing also results in loss of water from the body. Exhaled air has a relative humidity of 100% because of water diffusing across the moist surface of breathing passages and alveoli Appendicular skeleton the appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones in the human body which make motion possible and protects the organs of digestion, excretion, and reproduction. the word appendicular refers to an appendage or anything attached to a major part of the body, such as the upper and lower extremities. THE MAJOR AREAS OF APPENDICULAR SKELETON 1. Pectoral girdle In humans, the only joints between shoulder girdle and axial skeleton re sternoclavicular joints on each side. No joint exists between each scalpula and the thoracic cage, instead of muscular connection between the two permits relatively great mobility of the shoulder girdle in relation to the pelvic girdle 2. Arm The human arm contains 30 bones, joints, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. Many of these muscles are used for everyday tasks. The humerus is the (upper) arm bone. It joins with the scalpula above at the shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint) and with the ulna and radius below a the elbow joint. 3. Elbow joint The elbow joint is the hinge joint between the distal end of the humerus and the proximal ends of the radius and ulna. The humerus cannot be broken easily. Its strength allows it to handle loading up to 300lbs. Osteofacial compartments The arm is divided by a fascial layer (known as lateral and medial intermuscular septa) separating the muscles into two osteofascial compartments: Anterior compartment of the arm Posterior compartment of the arm The fascia merges with the periosteum (outer bone layer) of the humerus. The compartments contain muscles which are innervated by the same nerve and perform the same action. Two other muscles are considered to be partially in the arm: the large deltoid muscle is considered to have part of its body in the anterior compartment. This muscle is the main abductor muscle of the upper limb and extends over the shoulder. The brachioradialis muscle originates in the arm but inserts into the forearm. This muscle is responsible for rotating the hand so its palm faces forward (supination). Cubital fossa The cubital fossa is clinically important for venipuncture and for blood pressure measurement. It is an imaginary triangle with borders being: Laterally The medial border of brachioradialis muscle. Medially The lateral border of pronator teres muscle. Superiorly The intercondylar line, an imaginary line between the two epicondyles of the humerus. The floor is the brachialis muscle. The roof is the skin and fascia of the arm and forearm. Nerve supply The musculoskeletal nerve, from C5, C6, C7 is the main supplier of muscles of the anterior compartment. It originates from the lateral cord of the brachial plexus of nerves. It pierces the coracobrachialis muscle and gives off as the anterior cutaneous nerve of the forearm. The musculoskeletal nerve, from C5, C6, C7 is the main supplier of muscles of the anterior compartment. It originates from the lateral cord of the brachial plexus of nerves. It pierces the coracobrachialis muscle and gives off as the anterior cutaneous nerve of the forearm. The radial nerve, which of from the fifth cervical spinal nerve to the first thoracic spinal nerve, originates as the continuation of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. This nerve enters the lover triangular space (an imaginary space bounded by, amongst others, the shaft of the humerus and the triceps brachii) of the arm and lies deep to the triceps brachii. Here it travels with the deep artery of the arm (the profunda brachii), which sits in the radial groove of the humerus. This fact is very important clinically as a fracture of the bone at the shaft of the bone here can cause leasions or even transections in the nerve. Other nerves passing through give no supply to the arm. These include: The median nerve, nerve origin C5-T1, which is a branch of the lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus. This nerve continues in the arm, travelling in a plane between the biceps and triceps muscle. At the cubital fossa, this nerve is deep to the pronator teres muscle and is the most medial structure in the fossa. The nerve passes into the forearm. Other nerves passing through give no supply to the arm. These include: The ulnar nerve, origin C7-T1, is a continuation of the medial cord of the brachial plexus. This nerve passes in the same plane as the median nerve, between the biceps and triceps muscles. At the elbow, this nerve travels posterior to the medial epicondyle of the humerus. This means that condylar fractures can cause lesion to this nerve. Blood supply and venous drainage Arteries The main artery in the arm is the brachial artery. This artery is a continuation of the axillary artery. The point at which the axillary becomes the brachial is distal to the lower border of teres major. The brachial artery gives off an important branch, the profunda brachii (deep artery of the arm). This branching occurs just below the lower border of the teres major. The brachial artery continues to the cubital fossa in the anterior compartment of the arm. It travels in a plane between the biceps and triceps muscles, the same as median nerve and bacillic vein. It is accompanied by venae comitantes (accompanying veins). It gives branches to the muscles of the anterior compartment. The artery is in between the median nerve and the tendon of the biceps muscle in the cubital fossa. It then continues into the forearm. The profunda brachii travels through the lower triangular space with the radial nerve. Frome here onwards it has an intimate relationship with the radial nerve. They are both found deep to the triceps muscle and are located on the spinal groove of the humerus. Therefore fracture of the bone may not only lead to lesion of the radial nerve, but also hematoma of the internal structures of the arm. The artery then continues on to anastamose with the reeccurent radial branch of the brachial artery, providing a diffuse blood supply for the elbow joint. Veins The veins of the arm carry blood from the extremities of the limb, as well as drain the arm itself. The two main veins are the basilic and the cephalic veins. There is a connecting vein between two, the median cubital vein, which passes through the cubital fossa and is clinically important for venipuncture (withdrawing blood). The basilic vein travels on the medial side of the arm and terminates at the level of the seventh rib. The cephalic vein travels on the lateral side of the arm and terminates as the axillary vein. It passes through the deltopectoral triangle, a space between the deltoid and the pectoralis major muscles. Hand The multi-fingered body parts normally located at the end of each arm of a human or other primate. They are chief organs for physically manipulating the environment, using anywhere from the roughest motor skill (wielding a club) to the finest (threading a needle), and since the fingertips contain some of the densest areas of nerve endings on the human body, they are also the richest source of tactile feedback so that sense of touch is intimately associated with human hands. Digits The four fingers on the hand are used for the outermost performance; there four digits can be folded over palm which allows the grasping of objects. Each finger, starting with one closest to the thumb, has a colloquial name to distinguish it from the others: Index finger= pointer finger or forefinger Middle finger Ring finger Little finger pinky The thumb (connected to the trapezium) is located on one of the sides, parallel to the arm. The articulations are: Intercephangeal articulations of hand Metacarpophalengeal joints Intercarpal articulations Wrist (may also be viewed as belonging to the forearm.) Leg A limb or part of the body that supports the rest of the human parts above the ground between the ankle and hip and is used for locomotion. Hip Is the bony projection of the femur which is known as the greater trochanter, and the overlying muscle and fat. The hip joint scientifically refered to as the acetabulofemoral joint, is the joint between the femur and acetabulum of the pelvis and its primary function is to support the weight of the body in both static (e.g standing) and dynamic (e.g walking or running) postures. Ankle joint Is formed where the foot and leg meet. The ankle, or talcrural joint, is a synovial hinge joint that connects the distal ends of the tibia and fibula in the lower limb with the proximal end of the talus bone in the foot. Foot It is the terminal portion of the limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. The foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made up of bones, generally including the nails. Pelvic girdle The appendicular skeleton and the axial skeleton together form the complete skeleton. The pelvis or pelvic girdle is the irregular bony structure located at the base of the spine (properly known as the caudal end). Pelvic girdle In the adult human, it is formed by the sacrum and the coccyx, the caudal part of the axial skeleton, and a pair of hip bones, part of the appendicular skeleton or lower extremity. Until puberty, however, each hip bone consists of three separate bones yet to be fused-the ilium, ischium, and the pubis- and the pelvis is thus composed of up to five or seven bones. Pelvic girdle The ilium is the largest and upper most part, the ischium is the posterior-inferior (back lower) part, and the pubis is the anterior (front) part of the hip bone. The two hip bones are joined anteriorly at the symphysis pubis and posteriorly to the sacrum. Pelvic girdle The pelvis incorporates the socket portion of the hip joint (the acetabulum) for each leg (in bipeds) or hind leg (in quadripeds). it forms the lower limb (or hind limb) girdle of the skeleton. During childbirth, child has to pass through pelvic opening in women. Pelvic cavity The pelvic cavity is a body cavity that is bound by the bones of the pelvis and which primarily contains reproductive organs and the rectum. Pelvic cavity The lesser pelvis (or true pelvis) only includes structures inferior to the pelvic brim. The greater pelvis (false pelvis) is the expanded portion of the cavity situated above and in front of the pelvic brim. Sex differences in human pelvis Infrapubic angle is greater than 90 in males. Pelvic inlet in males is more heart-shaped, while in females it is more round or oval. Greater sciatic notch narrower in males. Acetabulum in males faces more laterally, while it faces more anteriorly in females. Sacrum more triangular and shorter in females. Four main types of pelvis Gynaecoid: normal female pelvis, round with enlarged transverse diameter. Android: normal male pelvis, heart- shaped. Anthropoid: long anterior to posterior diameter. Platypelloid: long transverse diameter. STRUCTURE IN HUMANS B. MUSCULAR Muscle Muscle is a contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. Their function is to produce force and cause motion. Muscle can cause either locomotion of the organism itself or movement of internal organs. Cardiac and smooth muscle contraction occurs without conscious thought and is necessary for survivial. Examples are the contraction of the heart and peristalisis which pushes food through the digestive system. Voluntary contraction of the skeletal muscles is used to move the body and can be finely controlled. Examples are movements of the eye, or gross movements like quadriceps muscle of the thigh. There are two broad types of voluntary muscle fibers: slow twitch and fast twitch. Slow twitch fibers contract for long periods of time but with little force while fast twitch fibers contract quickly and powerfully but fatigue very rapidly. These are three types of muscles: Cardiac This is a type of highly oxidative (using molecular oxygen to generate energy) involuntary striated muscle found in the walls of the heart, specifically the myocardium. Cardiac muscle cells are known as cardiac myocytes. Cardiac muscles is one of three major types of muscle. The cells that comprise cardiac muscle are sometimes seen as immediate between these two other types in terms of appearance, structure, metabolism, excitation-coupling and mechanism of contraction. Cardiac muscle shares similarities with skeletal muscle with regard to its striated appearance and contraction, with both differing significantly from smooth muscle cells. Coordinated contraction of cardiac muscle cells in the heart propel blood from the atria and ventricles to the blood vessels of the circulatory system. Cardiac muscle cells, like all tissues in the body, rely on an ample blood supply to deliver oxygen and nutrients and to remove waste products such as carbon dioxide. The coronary arteries fulfill this function. Skeletal Skeletal muscle or voluntary muscle is anchored by tendons to bone and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion and in maintaining posture. Through this postural control is generally maintained as subconscious reflex, the muscles responsible react to conscious control like non-postural muscles. An average adult male is made up of 40-50% of skeletal muscle and an average adult female is made up of 30-40% (as a percentage of body mass). Skeletal muscle is further divided into several subtypes: Type I, slow oxidative, slow twitch, or red muscle is dense with capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin, giving the muscle tissue its characterisitic red color. It can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activity. Type II, fast twitch muscle, has three major kinds that are, in order of increasing contractile speed. Type IIa, which like slow muscle, is aerobic, rich in mitochondria and capillaries and appears red. Type IIx, (also known as type IId) which is less dense in mitochondria and myoglobin. This is the fastest muscle type in humans. It can contract more quickly and with a greater amount of force than oxidative muscle, but can only sustain short, anaerobic bursts of activity before muscle contraction becomes painful (often incorrectly attributed to a build-up of lactic acid). Type IIb, which is anaerobic, glycolytic, white muscle that is even less dense in mitochondria and myoglobin. In small animals like rodents this is the major fast muscle type , explaining the pale color of their flesh. Smooth Smooth muscles are used to control the flow of substances within the lumens of hollow organs, and are not consciously controlled. Skeletal and cardiac muscles have striations that are visible under a microscope due to the components within their cells. Only skeletal and smooth muscles are part of the musculoskeletal system and only the skeletal muscles can move the body. (cardiac muscle are found in the heart and are used exclusively to circulate blood; like the smooth muscles, these muscles are not under conscious control)
Contraction initiation When a muscle contracts, a series of reactions occur. Muscle contraction is stimulated by the motor neuron sending a message to the muscles from the somatic nervous system. Depolarization of the motor neuron results in neurotransmitters being released from the nerve terminal. The space between the nerve terminal and the muscle cell is called neuromusclular junction. These neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and bind to specific receptor sites on the cell membrane of the muscle fiber. When enough receptors are stimulated, an action potential is generated and the permeability of the sarcolema is altered. This process is known as initiation. Joints Joints are structures that connect individual bones and may allow bones to move against each other to cause movement. These are two divisions of joints, diarthroses which allows extensive mobility between two or more articular heads, and false joints or synarthroses that allow little or no movement and are predominantly fibrous. Synovial joints are lubricated by a solution called synovia that is produced by the synovial membranes. This fluid lowers the froction between the articular surfaces and is kept within an articular capsule, binding the joint with its taut tissue. Diarthroses Synovial joint are the most common and most movable type of joints in the human body. As with most other joints, synovial joints achieve movement at the point of contact of the articulating bones. Synarthroses A type of joint which permits very little or no movement under normal condition. Most synarthrosis joints are fibrous. Suture joints and synchroondroses are synarthroses. Synovial membranes Synovial membrane id the soft tissue that lines the non-cartilagenous surface within joints with cavities (synovial joints). Tendons A tendon is tough, flexible band of fibrous connective tissue that connects muscles to bones. Muscles gradually become tendon as the cells become closer to the origins and insertions on bones, eventually becoming solid bands of tendons transmitt the forces to the rigid bones, pulling on them and causing movement. Fibrous connective tissue A type of connective tissue which has relatively high tensile strength, due to a relatively high concentration of collagenous or elastic fibers. Scuh tissues from ligaments and tendons; the majority of the tissue does not contain living cells, and is primarily composed of polysaccharides, proteins, and water. Fibrous connective tissue is found ajacent to the Mllers muscle Periosteum Periosteum is a membrane that lines the outer surface of all bones, except at the joints of long bones. Endosteum lines the inner surface of all bones. Periosteum consists of the irregular type of dense conncetive tissue. Periosteum is divided into an outer fibrous layer and inner cambium layer (also osteogenic layer) The fibrous layer contains fibroblasts while the cambium layer contains progenitor cells which develops into osteoblasts. These osteoblasts are responsible for increasing the width of a long bone and the overall size of the other bone types. After a bone fracture, the progenitor cells develop into osteoblasts and chondroblasts which are essential to healing process. Ligaments A ligaments is a small band of dense , white, fibrous elastic tissue. Ligaments connect the ends of bones together in order to form a joint. Most ligaments limit dislocation, or prevent certain movements that may cause breaks. Since they are only elastic they increasingly lengthen when under pressure. When this occurs the ligament may be susceptible to break resulting in an unstable joint. Three different types of structures: Fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones. They are sometimes called articular ligaments, fibrous ligaments or true ligaments A fold of peritoneum or other membrane The remnants of a tubular structure from the fetal period of life. Bursa A bursa is a small fluid-filled sac made of white fibrous tissue and lined with synovial membrane. It provides a cushion between bones and tendons and/ or muscle around a joint; bursae are filled with synovial fluid and are found around almost every major of the body.
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