CHAPTER 2.

3
Carbon Compounds
The Chemistry of Carbon

Carbon

four valence electrons

can form strong covalent bonds with

many other elements

hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,

sulfur, and nitrogen (H
2, O2, P, S, and N2

!iving organisms are made up of molecules that consist of carbon

and these other elements"
The Chemistry of Carbon

Carbon-Carbon Bonds

#an bond to itself

millions of large and complex structures

Single, double, or triple covalent bonds"

$ings also present
Macromolecules

%ranslates into &giant molecules"'

(ormed by polymerization)

!arge compounds are built by *oining

smaller ones together
Macromolecules

%he smaller units, or

monomers, *oin together
to form polymers

%he monomers in a
polymer may be
identical or different
Macromolecules

%hese macromolecules get sorted based

upon the chemical composition"

carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and

proteins"
Carbohydrates

made up of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen
atoms, usually in a
ratio of + ) 2 ) +"

ie #
,H+2O,
Carbohydrates

!iving things use carbohydrates as their

main source of energy" %he brea-down of
sugars, such as glucose, supplies
immediate energy for cell activities"
Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide)

Monomer of
carbohydrates

single sugar molecule

glucose, galactose (seen in

mil-, fructose (in fruit
Carbohydrates

Disaccharide)

Polymer of carbohydrates

two sugar molecules

bonded

Sucrose)
glucose . fructose

/altose)
glucose . glucose
Complex Carbohydrates

Polysaccharide)

Polymer of carbohydrates

many monosaccharides bonded together

Starches, glycogen, cellulose

Complex Carbohydrates

0n animals)

1lycogen is storage of excess sugar

2hen the level of glucose in your blood

runs low, glycogen is bro-en down into
glucose, which is then released into the
blood"

%he glycogen stored in your muscles

supplies the energy for muscle contraction"
Complex Carbohydrates

0n plants)

Starch is storage of excess sugar

#ellulose is used in cell wall for strength and

rigidity"
Complex Carbohydrates
(b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide
Starch
Glycogen mylose
Chloroplast
(a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide
mylopectin
MitochondriaGlycogen gran!les
"#$ %m
& %m
Lipids

/ade mostly from carbon and hydrogen

atoms and are generally not soluble in
water"

%ypically have more carbon and hydrogen

atoms, and less oxygen atoms"

(ats, oils, waxes

Lipids

3uilding bloc-s of lipids are glycerol and

fatty acids"
Lipids

%here are two types of fatty acids)

saturated and unsaturated"
Lipids

Sat!rated 'atty
acid) only single
bonds are
between the
carbon atoms

No empty spaces
for hydrogen
atoms to bond to
carbon
Sat!rated 'at
Str!ct!ral
'orm!la o' a
sat!rated 'at
molec!le
Lipids

Saturated fats are

seen in animal4
based products
li-e meat, butter,
lard, and
shortening"

Solid at room
temp4typically bad
for you"

%rans fat bad also

Sat!rated 'at
Str!ct!ral
'orm!la o' a
sat!rated 'at
molec!le
Lipids

(nsat!rated
'atty acid) at least
one double bond
between carbon

Polyunsaturated if
the fatty acid has
more than one
double bond
between carbon
(nsat!rated 'at
Str!ct!ral 'orm!la
o' an !nsat!rated
'at molec!le
cis do!ble
bond ca!ses
bending
Lipids

5nsaturated fatty
acids are seen in
plant4based
products) nuts,
avocado, olive oil,
vegetable oil

!i6uid at room
temp4good for
you
(nsat!rated 'at
Str!ct!ral 'orm!la
o' an !nsat!rated
'at molec!le
cis do!ble
bond ca!ses
bending
Lipids

(ats are the most concentrated energy source

in our diets"

1ive 2"7x the energy that sugar gives

%hey have more chemical bonds, therefore

more chemical energy"

Store energy because carbohydrates are

used as first energy source
Lipids

(ats are used by animals for insulation and

protections of organs"

Shoc- absorption as animal moves"

2axes are used for protective covering"

8arwax cleans and protects ear canal"

2ax in plants made by leaves pro*ects from

water loss

2hales4 build layers of earwax (up to 9"

#an tell their age after it dies from the wax

Lipids

Phospholipid is important for the cell

membrane"
)atty acids
Phosphate
Glycerol
Proteins

/acromolecule with nitrogen as well as

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen"

/onomer) amino acid

Polymer) polypeptide (a*a protein)

/any functions) control the rate of reactions

and regulating cell processes, form cellular
structures, transport substances into or out
of cells, and help to fight disease"
Proteins

mino acids are compounds with an

amino group (:NH
2 on one end and a carboxyl group (:
#OOH on the other end"
mino
gro!p
Carbo+yl
gro!p
Proteins

2hen a protein is made (a polymer, the bond

between each amino acid is called a peptide
bond"
Proteins

;ll amino acids are identical in the amino and

carboxyl groups"

;mino acids differ from each other in a side

chain called the $4group, which have a range
of different properties"
Proteins

/ore than 2< different amino acids are

found in nature"
Levels of Organization of Proteins

Proteins have 9 levels

of structure"

Primary Structure)
se6uence of it=s amino
acids

;lso can be shown as a

list) val his leu thr pro glu glu lys
ser ala val thr ala leu tyr gly lys
val asn val asp glu val gly gly glu
ala leu gly
mino acid
s!b!nits
,-
./
mino end
Primary Str!ct!re
Levels of Organization of Proteins

Secondary Structure) folding or coiling of the

polypeptide chain
Secondary Str!ct!re
pleated sheet
heli+
Levels of Organization of Proteins

%ertiary Structure) the complete, three4

dimensional arrangement of a polypeptide
chain"
Levels of Organization of Proteins

>uaternary Structure) describes the way in

which the different polypeptide chains are
arranged with respect to each other"
0ertiary Str!ct!re 1!aternary Str!ct!re
Levels of Organization of Proteins

Seen in hemoglobin

Has sub units

-eme
2ron
Levels of Organization of Proteins
Primary
Str!ct!re
Secondary
Str!ct!re
0ertiary
Str!ct!re
pleated sheet
3+amples o'
amino acid
s!b!nits
,-
./
mino end
heli+
1!aternary
Str!ct!re
!ucleic "cids

/acromolecules containing hydrogen,

oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus"

/onomer) n!cleotide

Polymer) n!cleic acid

Store and transmit hereditary, or genetic,

information"
!ucleic "cids

/!cleotides consist of
three parts) a
74carbon sugar, a
phosphate group
(:PO
9, and a nitrogenous base"

adenosine triphosphate (;%P, important for

capturing and transferring chemical energy"
!ucleic "cids

%wo important nucleic

acids)

ribonucleic acid ($N;

and deoxyribonucleic acid
(?N;"

$N; contains the sugar

ribose and ?N; contains
the sugar deoxyribose"

?N; contains instructions

to ma-e amino acids
which ma-e proteins