Adiabatic Process

An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is transferred

to or from the fluid during the process
Such a process can be reversible or irreversible
For an adiabatic process to take place, perfect thermal
insulation for the system must be available.
Most of the turbo-machines operate adiabatically.



the work done W by the fluid is at the expense of a
reduction in the internal energy of the fluid.
Similarly in an adiabatic compression process all the
work done on the fluid goes to increase the internal
energy of the fluid
Isentropic process
Reversible adiabatic process is known as isentropic
process
There is no change in the entropy



p.dv
Work done in isentropic process
Non flow Process
Flow process
1 1 2 2
1 2
1 2
( )
1
( )
fp
fp p
fp
w p v p v
w c T T
w h h

Specific work
The work capacity of a turbomachine per unit mass rate
of flow of fluid is called the specific work (W) of the
turbomachine
It is defined as the difference in the useful energy content
per unit mass rate of flow medium between the two ends
namely pressure and suction ends of the machine
The useful energy content of the flow medium can be
expressed as the sum of pressure, kinetic and gravitational
potential energies
When the change in density is negligible,
Units of W are m
2
/s
2
or J/kg
Specific work is used as a common term for all types of
turbo machines instead of Head or pressure ratio
Head is commonly used for Pumps and hydraulic turbines
Pressure ratio is commonly used for compressors and
steam/gas turbines
The above equation cannot be used for compressible flow
as the density is not constant .Since by definition, W is
the useful energy, it is the work of a the isentropic process

Energy equation
From the first law of thermodynamics we have


For applications in turbomachines, the energy term will
include internal energy, gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy.



Change in the energy in a finite process between two
states is given by

(1)

Sub. In eqn. (1)



Dividing throughout by mass m,





(2)
(3)
Steady flow energy equation.
For study flow work through turbomachines, the work
term includes the shaft work and flow work
The SFEE can be written as




Since H = U + pV


In terms of specific quantities


Eqn. (4) & (5) is the SFEE for control volume or open
system
This can be rewritten for various processes in various
turbomachines and their components
Hydro Turbomachines
Here =1/v = Constant , u
1
u
2
and q 0
So we have from eqn (5)

(5)
(4)
(6)
Guide blades and draft tubes
These are stationary, so shaft work is zero, then eqn. (6)
becomes


Compressible flow machines
Most of the compressible flow machines such as gas
turbines, compressors and blowers are adiabatic
machines, ie. q = 0
In these machines change in PE also negligible as
compared to others, so the eqn .(5) becomes
The shaft work is given by



If the entry and exit velocities are small or the difference
between them is negligible, then the shaft work is given
by the difference between the static enthalpies

Stagnation state & Stagnation properties
A state defined by the stagnation temperature and
pressure is the stagnation state
The stagnation state of a gas is often used as a reference
state.
Stagnation enthalpy
It is defined as the enthalpy of the gas or vapour when it
is adiabatically decelerated to zero velocity


The stagnation enthalpy is constant in a flow process that
does not involve a work transfer or a heat transfer even
though irreversible processes may be present




The stagnation state is represented by the point 01
brought about by an irreversible deceleration.
For a reversible deceleration the stagnation point would
be at point 01s and the state change would be called
isentropic.
Stagnation temperature
The stagnation temperature is defined through stagnation
enthalpy
For a perfect gas we have



and
Where M is the Mach number
The mach no. is defined as the ratio of local velocity of the
gas to the local velocity of sound


Stagnation velocity of sound
Since
Stagnation pressure
It is the pressure of gas or fluid is obtained by
decelerating it in a reversible adiabatic(isentropic)
process to zero velocity
The ratio of stagnation and static pressure can be obtained
as follows



When the pressure changes are small, the process can be
assumed to be incompressible. Then stagnation pressure
can be determined from the Bernoulli eqn.

Adiabatic flow through nozzles


But the actual process is irreversible adiabatic. Since the
shaft work is absent the stagnation enthalpy remains constant
(h
01
=h
02
).



The actual velocity c
2
is less tan than the isentropic velocity.
Also irreversible adiabatic flow experiences an increase in
entropy s and decrease in the stagnation pressure p
0
= p
01
p
02

Nozzle efficiency for large pressure
ratio
The function of nozzle is to transform the energy of the
expanding gas in to KE.
Nozzle efficiency should be a measure of he energy
transformation




We have
(7)
Nozzle Velocity coefficient
Most of the applications the gas or steam enters the
nozzle from a large space. So the enthalpy at the
beginning of the process is considered as h
01
instead of h
1





We have
Nozzle efficiency for small pressure
ratio
From eqn. (7) we have






(h
2
-h
2s
) is the enthalpy loss due to irreversible flow
For isentropic process we have
= 0
If the change in pressure is small, the flow can be
considered as incompressible ( = constant).




Adiabatic flow through diffusers
The transformation of KE of gases in to a static pressure
rise takes place in a diffuser
There is no change in entropy and loss in stagnation
pressure during a reversible adiabatic pressure.





But actual process is irreversible adiabatic, it must be
accompanied by a stagnation pressure loss and increase in
entropy.
Final state after irreversible adiabatic process is
represented by point 2. This is fixed by assuming same
change in the KE.
There will be a change in static pressure but the
stagnation enthalpy remains the same
Diffuser efficiency for small pressure rise
For small rise in static pressure, the flow in the diffuser
can be considered as incompressible ( constant)








Therefore the pressure rise is given by




For the actual state point 2


Therefore the pressure rise in actual process is given by





But

Thus we have
Diffuser efficiency




But we have
Diffuser efficiency for large pressure rise
For large pressure rise through diffuser, density change is
appreciable and flow is compressible
We have the energy equation for the processes





Substituting this in to the efficiency equation we have

For incompressible flow this expression can be reduced to
expressions derived for small pressure rise.
For example




Therefore we have



This is same as the expression that derived for small
pressure rise.
Work and efficiencies in turbine stages
Energy equation in various forms and the concepts
discussed for nozzles can employed for turbines
In turbines the difference is on account of the presence of
shaft work






Ideal and actual expansion process in turbine

In the isentropic process (1-2s), on account of work
transfer there is a drop in stagnation enthalpy and the
entropy remains same on account of isentropic process
The actual expansion process (irreversible adiabatic) 1-2,
on account of irreversibility there is an increase in
entropy
Stagnation pressures at exit cannot be compared with
initial stagnation pressures because of the work transfer.
The actual work at the turbine can be determined from the
change in stagnation enthalpies at the entry and exit.


For perfect gas




01 02 a
w h h
Total to total Efficiency
Efficiency of turbine is ratio of actual to ideal work for
the same Pressure ratio (p
r
=p
1
/p
2
)
In turbines the actual work can be measured and the ideal
work is hypothetical and depends on the manner it is
defined
If the ideal work is defined as the work obtained during
the isentropic expansion from the stagnation state O
1
to
O
2s
, then the efficiency based on this is known as the
total to total efficiency

Here the KE of the gas at the exit is not considered as
wasted since it is contained in the term h
02s ,
H
02s
= h
2s
+ c
2s
2
/2
a
tt
s
w
w

01 02
01 02
tt
s
h h
h h

01 02
01 02
tt
s
T T
T T

(8)
The stagnation pressure lines for p
02s
and p
02
are different.
However the distance between them is small.
The stagnation pressure ratio is






This expression when substituted in eqn. 8
For given stagnation temperature, pressure ratio and
efficiency the output power at the shaft is



Total to static efficiency
Some turbines the KE of the out going jet is lost because
it is not used after the turbine
eg. Some turbine stages exhaust in to atmosphere or in a
closed space like condenser
In such case the ideal work is the work done between the
states O
1
and 2s

The actual work remains the same as the before
The total to static efficiency is given by

If