Smith Davis 6 e CH 4

NONEXPERIMENTAL METHODS: DESCRIPTIVE
METHODS, CORRELATIONAL STUDIES, EX

POST FACTO STUDIES, SURVEYS AND
QUESTIONNAIRES, SAMPLING, AND BASIC
RESEARCH STRATEGIES
Chapter Four
Copyright 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
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Descriptive Methods
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Descriptive Methods
Do not involve manipulation of an independent variable
When we use descriptive methods, we can only speculate about
causation that may be involved.
Descriptive Methods
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Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Refers to use of data recorded by other individuals for other
purposes
public health and census data
The General Social Survey is an archival source that can be
accessed online
http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/gss/home.htm

Descriptive Methods
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Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Potential Problems
You will not know exactly who left the data you are investigating.
The participants may have been selective in what they chose to write.
Archival and previously recorded sources of data may not survive
long enough for you to make use of them.
Comparisons with the Experimental Method
We are not able to exercise any control with regard to gathering these
data and cannot make any statements regarding cause-and-effect.

Descriptive Methods
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Naturalistic Observation
Involves seeking answers to research questions by observing
behavior in the real world.
The first goal of naturalistic observation is to describe behavior as it
occurs in the natural setting without the artificiality of the laboratory.
The second goal of naturalistic observation is to describe the
variables that are present and the relations among them.
The reactance or reactivity effect
Refers to biasing of the participants responses because they know
they are being observed.
The reactivity effect is also known as the Hawthorne effect because
of the location of the original study.

Descriptive Methods
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Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
Time sampling
Involves making observations at different time periods in order
to obtain a more representative sampling of the behavior of
interest.
Selection of time periods may be determined randomly or in a
more systematic manner.
The use of time sampling may apply to the same or different
participants.

Descriptive Methods
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Situation sampling
Involves observing the same behavior in several different
situations. This techniques offers the researcher two
advantages:
By sampling behavior in several different situations, you are able
to determine whether the behavior in question changes as a
function of the context in which you observed it.
You are likely to observe different participants in the different
situations and because different individuals are observed, your
ability to generalize any behavioral consistencies across the
various situations is increased.
Descriptive Methods
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Using More than One Observer: Interobserver Reliability
There are two main reasons for using more than one observer:
One observer may miss or overlook a bit of behavior.
There may be some disagreement concerning exactly what was
seen and how it should be rated or categorized.
When two individuals observe the same behavior, it is possible to
see how well their observations agree.
The extent to which the observers agree is called interobserver
reliability.
Low interobserver reliability indicates that the observers disagree
about the behavior(s) they observed.
High interobserver reliability indicates agreement.

Descriptive Methods
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Here is the formula for calculating interobserver reliability:

# of times observers agree
______________________ X 100 = percent of agreement
# of opportunities to agree

85% agreement is generally considered to be an acceptable
minimum level for interobserver reliability.
Correlational Studies
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A correlational study involves the measurement and
determination of the relation between two variables.
Used when data on two variables are available, but
variables only able to be measured, not manipulated.
Cannot determine cause-and-effect.

Correlational Studies
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The Nature of Correlations
Three basic patterns may emerge:
Positive correlation
As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also
increase.
A perfect positive correlation has a correlation coefficient of
1.
Negative correlation
Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a
decrease in the second variable.
A perfect negative correlation has a correlation coefficient of
1.
Zero correlation
Indicates a lack of relation between the two variables.
The correlation coefficient for a zero correlation is zero (or
close to zero).

Ex Post Facto Studies
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Ex post facto is a Latin phrase meaning after the
fact.
When we conduct an ex post facto study, we are using
an IV after the fact it has already varied before we
arrived on the scene.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests,
and Inventories
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Surveys and Questionnaires
Descriptive surveys
seek to determine what percentage of the population has a certain
characteristic, holds a certain opinion, or engages in a particular
behavior.
Examples: The Gallup Poll, Nielsen television ratings
Analytic surveys
seek to determine what the relevant variables are and how they might
be related.
Questions need to be chosen carefully.
Pilot testing is generally necessary to determine the type of
questions that will be used in the final survey instrument.

and Inventories
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Developing a Good Survey or Questionnaire
Step 1 decide what type of instrument to use. How will the
information be gathered?
Will you use a mail survey, conduct a phone interview, or conduct the
survey in person? Will you use trained interviewers?
Step 2 identify the types of questions to use.

and Inventories
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Yes-No Questions
The respondent answers yes or no to the items.
Forced Alternative Questions
The respondent must select between two alternative responses.
Multiple-Choice Questions
The respondent must select the most suitable response from among
several alternatives.
Likert-Type Scales
The individual answers a question by selecting a response
alternative from a designated scale. A typical scale might be the
following: (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree,
or (1) strongly disagree.
Open-Ended Questions
A question is asked to which the respondent must construct his or her
own answer.

and Inventories
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Step 3 write the items: They should be clear, short, and specific.
Use familiar vocabulary and be at the reading level of the individuals
you intend to test.
Step 4 Pilot-test and seek opinions from knowledgeable others.
It is important to ask others, especially professionals who have
expertise in your area of research interest, to review your items.
They may be able to detect biases and unintended wordings that you
had not considered.

and Inventories
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Step 5 determine the relevant demographic data to be collected.
Includes items such as age, sex, annual income, size of community,
academic major, and academic classification.
Step 6 determine administration procedures and develop instructions.
Instructions must be clear, concise, easy to follow, and thoroughly
rehearsed (for in-person or phone interviews).
How will informed consent be obtained?

and Inventories
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Survey Administration Procedures
Mail Surveys
Personal Interviews
Telephone Interviews
and Inventories
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Mail Surveys
Advantages
The researcher does not have to be present while the survey is
being completed.
Surveys can be sent to a much larger number of participants than
a single researcher could ever hope to contact in person.
Disadvantages
The researcher cannot be sure who actually completes the
survey.
There is no guarantee the respondent answered the questions in
the same order in which they appeared in the survey.
Low return rate.

and Inventories
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Personal Interviews
Advantages
When a trained interviewer administers a survey in a
respondents home, the response rate climbs dramatically.
The trained interviewer is able to clarify ambiguous questions,
making sure that all questions are answered in the proper
sequence, and generally assisting with any problems that the
respondents may experience.
Disadvantages
The potential for considerable expenditure of time and money
exists.
People not always at home.

and Inventories
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Telephone Interviews
Advantages
It is easy to create random samples with random-digit dialing.
95% of households in the U.S. have telephones.
Computer technology allows responses to be entered directly as
they are made.
Disadvantages
Incoming calls may be screened and potential respondents lost.
It is easy to say no to a phone interviewer.
Cannot use visual aids to clarify questions.
Cannot evaluate nonverbal cues such as facial expressions,
gestures, and posture.
It is more difficult to establish rapport.

and Inventories
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Tests and Inventories
Tests and inventories are designed to assess a specific attribute,
ability, or characteristic possessed by the individual being tested.
Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity a test or inventory has validity when it actually
measures what it is supposed to measure.

and Inventories
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Content validity
Indicates that the test items actually represent the type of
material they are supposed to test.
A panel of expert judges is often used to assess the content
validity of test items.
Concurrent validity
Is established when a score on a test or inventory agrees with
another measure (e.g. aggression score on a test agrees with
a clinicians assessment).
Criterion validity
Is established when a test score compares favorably with a
predicted future outcome (e.g. SAT score and college
success).

and Inventories
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Reliability
Refers to the extent that the test or inventory is consistent in
its evaluation of the same individuals over repeated
administrations.
The greater the similarity between scores produced by the
same individuals on repeated administrations, the greater the
reliability of the test or inventory.
and Inventories
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Reliability (assessment)
Test-retest procedure
The test is simply given a second time and scores from the two
tests are compared; the greater the similarity, the higher the
reliability.
Split-half technique
Involves dividing a test or inventory into two halves or subtests
and then administering them to the same individuals on different
occasions or by administering the entire test and then splitting it
into two halves.

and Inventories
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Types of Tests and Inventories
Achievement tests
Are given when an evaluation of an individuals level of mastery
or competence is desired.
The score that distinguishes passing from failing determines the
minimum level of achievement that must be attained.
Aptitude tests
Are used to assess an individuals ability or skill in a particular
situation or job.
Personality tests or inventories
Measure specific aspects of an individuals motivational state,
interpersonal capability, or personality.

Sampling Considerations and
Basic Research Strategies
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Sampling
Deals with the question of who will participate in our research
project and whether they are a representative group.
Population
The complete set of individuals or events that we want to
represent.
Sample
The group that we select to represent the population is called
the sample.
Random sample
Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being
included in the sample.

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Random sampling without replacement
The member of population chosen for the sample is not eligible to be
selected again once returned to the population.
Random sampling with replacement
Member of population chosen for sample is eligible to be selected
again once returned to the population.
Stratified random sampling
Involves dividing the population into subpopulations or strata and
then drawing a random sample from one or more of these strata.

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Single-strata approach
Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment of the
population.
Cross-sectional research
Involves the comparison of two or more groups of participants
during the same, rather limited, time span.
Longitudinal research
Involves acquiring data from a single group of participants over a
long period of time.

Smith Davis 6 e CH 4

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NONEXPERIMENTAL METHODS: DESCRIPTIVE

METHODS, CORRELATIONAL STUDIES, EX

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