CELL DIVISION

The necessity for the production of new

cells :
- replace dead cells
- growth
New cell are produced by mitotic cell
division

Chromosomes and chromosomal
number
The cells in sexually reproducing organism
can be divided :
- somatic cells - mitosis
- reproductive cells / gametes meiosis
Every cell has a thread like structures in its
nucleus called chromosomes
The number of chromosomes in each cells
of each species is constant
The cells of a different species have a
different species have a different
chromosomal number
Onions 16 chromosomes
Fruit fly 8 chromosomes
Chromosomes in the nucleus exist in pairs
- diploid ( 2n )
Gametes contains only half the number of
chromosomes haploid
Somatic cells in human body 46
chromosomes
- inherited from each parent
Gamete only has 23 chromosomes

The two chromosomes in each pair have
the same structural features and referred
as homologous chromosomes
Human of the 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes one pair is sex
chromosomes
Female XX chromosomes
Male XY chromosomes
Mitosis maintains the chromosomal number of
species and ensures genetic material is passed on
to the offspring
Each daughter cell that is formed through
mitosis receives genetic material (DNA )
from the parent cell
Mitosis doubles the number of cells
without changing the genetic content of
the cell

The sequence of bases in the DNA
encodes information for the synthesis of
enzymes (protein ) which are needed by
the cell
The cell cycle
The cell cycle is the period that extends
from the time a new cell is produced until
the time the cell completes a division
Two major phases :
1. interphase
2. mitotic cell division ( M phase )

G1 phase
G2 phase
S phase
(DNA replication
Interphase
G1
Cell acquire and synthesis the material for
cell division
Proteins and new organelles are
synthesised
If external condition are conducive for
growth, cell enters the S phase
Chromosomes are extremely fine and
cannot be seen under light microscope (
chromatin )
S phase
Synthesis of DNA - replication
A duplicated chromosomes consist two
identical sister chromatids

Chromosomes duplication and
condensation
Chromosomes
duplication
Chromosomes
condenses
Duplicated
chromosomes
contains two
identical DNA
double helix
Two chromatids joined
at centromere


Sister
chromatid
One
chromatid
G
2

Cell continues to grow and remains
metabolically active
Cell accumulates energy and completes
its final preparations for division
Mitosis
Two major phases :
1. mitosis
2. cytokinesis
Mitosis prophase
- metaphase
- anaphase
- telophase
Prophase
- Chromosomes condense and tightly coiled
- Chromosomes become shorter, thicker,
visible under light microscope
- Chromosomes consist of two sister
chromatids joined together at the
centromere


Spindle fibre is formed in the cytoplasm
End of prophase nucleolus disappears,
nuclear membrane disintegrates
Metaphase
- The centromers of all chromosomes are
lined up on the equator of the cell
- Mitotic spindle are fully formed
- Sister chromosomes are still attached to
each other at the centromer


Anaphase
- Two sister chromatids separate at the
centromere
- Sister chromatids are pulled to the
opposite poles by the shortening of the
spindle fibre


The separate chromosomes are known as
daughter chromosomes
Anaphase ends when the chromosomes
reach the poles of the cell

Telophase
- Begins when both set of chromosomes
reach the opposite poles of the cell
- Chromosomes start to uncoil and revert to
their extended state again
- Spindle fibre disappear
- Nuclear membrane forms around each set
of chromosomes
Nucleolus reforms


Cytokinesis
- The cytoplasm of the cell divides to form
two daughter cells, each having one
nucleus
Actin filaments
contract to pull a
ring of the plasma
membrane inwards,
forming cleavage
furrow
Cleavage furrow
pinches at the
equator of the
cell
The cleavage
furrow deepens
until the cell
separates into
two daughter cell
Cytokinesis in animal cell

Cytokinesis in plant cells
Membrane-
enclosed
vesicle joint to
form a cell plate
Cell plate grows
outwards until its
edges fuse with
the plasma
membrane
- New cell wall and
plasma membrane
are formed
The cell plate
divides the cell
into two daughter
cell

The importance of controlled
mitosis
The rate and timing of cell division is
important for normal cell growth,
development and maintenance
Different cells divide at different
frequencies
Human skin divide throughout their
lifespan
Nerve and muscle do not divide once they
mature
The effects of uncontrolled mitosis
Cell that divides repeatedly without control
and regulation can produce cancer cells
Due to the severe disruption to the
mechanism that control the cell cycle
Cancer cell will form tumour
Lead to malfunction of tissues and
ultimately death
Factors that caused cancer :
1. Damage to DNA
2. Changes of genes
3. Radiation UV, gamma rays
4. Chemical compound tar
5. Carcinogenic formaldehyde
The application of cloning
Cloning is the process of producing clones
or genetically identical copies of a cell,
tissue or organism through asexual
reproduction
Organisms that are produced have the
same content and chromosome number
as the parent organism
Somatic cells are
removed and
grown in a culture
Unfertilised egg
cell is obtained.
The nucleus is
sucked out.
Electric pulse
stimulates the
fusion between
the somatic cell
and the egg cell
without nucleus
The embryo is
implanted into a
surrogate mother
The cells divides and
forming embryo
Somatic cell
donor
Ovum donor
Tissue culture technique
Involves the growth of cells or tissues
outside the organisms in a suitabe culture
medium, which contains nutrients and
growth hormones or through in vitro
methods
To produce plant and animal cells through
asexual reproduction
Different parts of plants can be cultured
- young shoots
- meristematic tissues
- leaves
- roots
- seeds
- embryos
- cells
-Small pieces of a plants leaf, shoot, bud ,
stem or root tissues are cut out
- these cut out plant tissues are called
explant
-Enzymes are used to digest the cell walls
of tissues
-Naked cells without cell walls called
protoplasts
-The protoplasts are sterilised and placed
in a container which contains nutrient
solution
-A culture medium consist a complex
mixture of glucose, amino acids, minerals
and other substances required for the
growth of tissues
- culture medium and apparatus must be
sterilised
- Protoplast begin to divide
- Cell division produces aggregates cells
and then develop into a callus
- Callus develop into somatic embryo
- Embryo develops into plantlet and
transferred into the soil for growth
Advantages of tissue culture
Thousand of young plants can be
produced
Have the same genetic content as parent
cells
A large number of identical plants can be
grown for commercial purposes
Advantages of cloning
Multiply copies of useful gene or clones
- Escherichia coli produce bovine growth
hormone
- increase the quality of cows milk
- produce insulin the gene that codes the
synthesis of human insulin is inserted into
the bacteria genome
Transgenic crops can be produced that
are resistant to herbicides, pests and
diseases
- high and better quality yields
- wheat, soya beans
Bacillus
thuringiensis
Cotton plant
Resistant to the Bt.
larvae
Gene
- delayed ripening in tomatoes
Does not need pollinating agents
- propagation can take place at any
time
Cloned plants can produce flowers and
fruits within a shorter period
- less effort
Exercise
Describe the significance of mitotic cell
division in living organisms
A somatic plant cell has a chromosomes
number of 4. state how many
chromosomes you would expect to find in
this plant at the prophase phase of mitosis
Control environmental pollution
- gene for the synthesis of lipase from
animals is inserted into the bacterial
genome - bacteria that clean up oil spill
- clean up toxic waste
Animal cloning
- cow that has been genetically enginered
to produce antibiotics in its milk
Disadvantages of cloning
The long term side effects to the human
have not been determined
The long term effect and safety aspect of
releasing bacterial clones to the
environment are not yet known
Clones do not show genetic variations
- clones can be wipe out easily by
diseases or drastic changes of
environment

May undergo mutation which can
endanger human and environment
Gene from transgenic crop may be
transferred to weeds that will become
resistant to herbicides
Cloned animals have a shorter lifespan
Meiosis
A process of nuclear division that reduces
number of chromosomes in daughter cells
to half of the parent cell
If mitosis is the only mean of nuclear
division, each gamete produced by the
reproductive organs would contains a
complete sets of chromosomes
Each offspring through the fertilisation of
the male and female gametes would have
twice the chromosomal number of their
parents
Sperm
46 chromosomes
Ovum
46 chromosomes
Zygote
92 chromosomes
Meiosis produces haploid (n) gametes
Contain half of the genetic material of the
parent cells
During sexual reproduction the fusion of
two gametes restores the complete
number of chromosomes forming a diploid
zygote
Sperm
23 chromosomes
Ovum
23 chromosomes
Zygote
46 chromosomes
Meiosis occurs in reproductive organs that
is in testes and ovaries
Plants meiosis occur in the anthers and
ovaries
The process of meiosis
Meiosis I
Meiosis II
The stages of meiosis
Interphase
- The cells replicates its DNA /
chromosomes
- After replication each chromosomes
consists of two identical sister chromatids
- Chromosomes are not condense, not
visible under microscope
Animals a pair of centrosomes are
formed in the cytoplasm
Centrossomes consist a pair of centrioles

Meiosis I

Prophase I
- Chromosomes begins to condense, shorter and
thicker
- Homologous chromosomes come together to
form pairs of bivalent through a process called
synapsis
- Each bivalent consist of four part structure called
tetrad
- A tetrad consist of two homologous
chromosomes, each of which is made up of two
sister chromatids

Non sister chromatids exchange segments
of DNA in a process known as crossing
over
Crossing over resuts in new combination
of genes on a chromosomes
The points at which segments of
chromatids cross ver are called chiasma
End of prophase I the nucleolus and
nuclear membrane disappear
Two pairs of centrioles migrate to the
opposite poles of the cell
Metaphase I
- Spindle fibre pull tetrads to the middle of
the cell
- Homologous chromosomes align at the
metaphase plate / equator of the cell
- One chromosomes of each pair is
attached from one pole and the other at
the opposite chromosome

Anaphase 1
- Homologous chromosomes are pull apart
by spindle fibre and move them to the
opposite pole
- Each chromosomes still consist of two
sister chromatids
- At the end of anaphase I each pole has
only two chromosomes

Telophase I
- The chromosomes arrive at the poles
- Each pole has a haploid daughter nucleus
because it contains only one set of
chromosomes
- Spindle fibre disappear
- Nuclear membrane reappear to surround
each group of chromosomes
- Nucleolus reappear in each nucleus

Cytokinesis occur simultenously with
telophase I
Most organism there are no interpase
between meiosis I and meiosis II

Prophase II
- Nuclear membrane disintegrate
- Spindle fibre reform in each daughter cell


Metaphase II
- The chromosomes each still made up of
two sister chromatids are positioned
randomly at the metaphase [late
- Sister chromatids is attached to the
spindle fibre at the centromere

Anaphase II
- The centromere of the sister chromatids
separate
- The sister chromatids of each
chromosomes are now individual
chromosomes
- Each individual chromosomes moves
towards the opposite pole of the cell

Telophase II
- The nuceoli and nuclear membrane reform
- The spindle fibre break down
- Cytokinesis follows and four haploid
daughter cells are formed
- Each haploid cell contains half the number
of chromosomes and genetically different
from the parent diploid cells

Assignment
Find out the differences between meiosis I
and meiosis II
State the differences between mitosis and
meiosis
The importance of meiotic cell
division
Ensure the diploid number of
chromosomes is maintained
Provides genetic variation
- the process of crossing over in
prophase I result in the
exchange of genetic material
- during metaphase I each pair of
chromosomes is arranged randomly
Appreciating the movement of
chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis
Asexual reproduction produces offspring
that are identical to the parent
Sexual reproduction produces genetic
variability
If meiosis does not occur properly the
gametes formed will have abnormal
number of chromosomes
47 chromosomes Downs syndrome
- mental retardation
Radiation and chemicals are carcinogenic
that can disrupt the processes of mitosis
and meiosis
Food that contains preservatives such as
sodium nitrite, benzene and formaldehyde
can change the structure of DNA
molecule