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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems

Signals and Systems

Signals
A signal is a set of data or information. Examples include cell phone signals,
television signals, voltages or currents in circuits, etc. The signals that we consider in
this course are functions of the independent variable time, but our discussions would
apply equally well to signals of other independent variables. Some examples of
signals are shown below.
Read: Ch. 1, Sect. 1-4, 6-8 in Linear Signals & Systems, 2
nd
Ed. by Lathi

Sound segment
t [s]

v(t) [V]

20
2 4 6 8 10 12 0
0
Voltage ramp waveform
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Systems
A system is any process that results in the transformation of signals. A system might
have an input signal x(t) and an output signal y(t) as shown below.
A system may be made up of physical components, such as in electric circuits or
mechanical systems, or a system may be a software algorithm that modifies a signal.

System Input signal = x(t) y(t) = Output signal
Continuous-time system
Signal Energy and Signal Power
Two useful measures of the size of a signal are signal energy and signal power.
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Signal Energy
Signal energy, E
x
, is defined as the area under x
2
(t). For example, signal energy for
f(t) shown below is the shaded area shown under f
2
(t).
E
x
is defined mathematically as follows:
}
}

=
=
-
2
x
-
2
x
signals) valued - complex (for dt x(t) E
signals) real (for (t)dt x E
or
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Signal Power
Signal energy must be finite in order for it to be a meaningful measure of signal size.
If energy is to be finite, then the signal amplitude must decay, or it is required that
signal energy 0 as |t| so that the integral will converge.
When signal energy is infinite, a more meaningful measure of the size of a signal is
power. Signal power, P
x
, is the time average of the energy.
P
x
is defined mathematically as follows:
}
}


=
=
T/2
T/2 -
2
T
x
T/2
T/2 -
2
T
x
signals) valued - complex (for dt x(t)
T
1
lim P
signals) real (for (t)dt x
T
1
lim P
or
}
}
=
=
T/2
T/2 -
2
x
T/2
T/2 -
2
x
signals) periodic valued - complex (for dt x(t)
T
1
P
signals) periodic real (for (t)dt x
T
1
P
or
For periodic signals with period T, P
x
is defined as:
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
x RMS
T/2
T/2 -
2
RMS
P X
so
signals) periodic real, (for (t)dt x
T
1
X
=
=
}
RMS value of a signal
Since P
x
is the time average (mean) of the signal amplitude squared, it is also referred
to as the mean-squared value of x(t). The square root of this quantity would be the
root mean-squared value of x(t) defined as:
Units
Note that the units for signal energy, E
x
, and signal power, P
x
, are not correct
dimensionally. E
x
has units of V
2
s if x(t) is a voltage rather than joules (V
2
s/O) and E
x

has units A
2
s if x(t) is a current rather than joules (A
2
sO).
Similarly, Px has units of V
2
or I
2
rather than watts (V
2
/O or A
2
O).
The units for E
x
and P
x
are dimensionally correct, however, if we think of x(t) as the
voltage across a 1O resistor or i(t) as the current through a 1O resistor.
So E
x
and P
x
should perhaps be thought of as the energy or power capability of the
signal, rather than the actual energy or power.
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Reference: Linear Signals and Systems, 2nd Edition, by Lathi.
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Energy signals and power signals
Energy signals have finite energy. All energy signals decay to zero as |t| .
Power signals have finite and non-zero power. All periodic signals are power signals.


Quiz:
Are all energy signals also power signals?
No. Any signal with finite energy will have zero power.

Are all power signals also energy signals?
No. Any signal with non-zero power will have infinite energy.

Are all signals either energy signals or power signals?
No. Any infinite-duration, increasing-magnitude function will not be either. (For
example, the signal x(t) =t is neither.)
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Example
Find the energy or power (whichever is most suitable) for each signal below.
t
x(t)
0 4
20
B)
t
x(t)
-4 0 4
20
A)
10
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Example (continued)
Find the energy or power (whichever is most suitable) for each signal below.
t
x(t)
-4 0 4
20
D)
t
x(t)
-4 0 4
20
C)
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Example
Find the power and rms value of x(t) = Csin(wt - u) shown below. See the next slide for
any trigonometric identities that are required.
x(t)
t
u
C
-C
Result: For any sinusoidal waveform, RMS value = __________________
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Trigonometric Identities
If any trigonometric identities are required for homework problems, refer to section B.7-
6 in Linear Signals and Systems, 2
nd
Edition, by Lathi. If any of the identities are
needed for a test, they will be provided.
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
RMS Values of waveforms
We wont use RMS values much in this course, but they are important in some areas
such as in AC circuit analysis.
RMS values of currents and voltages are commonly used in AC circuits.
Most AC meters read RMS values rather than peak values.

Example: A typical household wall outlet has 120V RMS and frequency f = 60 Hz.
a) Describe this voltage as a sinusoidal function
b) Sketch the waveform and the RMS value
c) Find the period, T, and the radian frequency, w.
d) Show how the RMS value is used to calculate power and compare it to an equivalent
DC circuit.
0.707I
2
I
I 0.707V
2
V
V
peak
peak
RMS peak
peak
RMS
= = = =
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Useful Signal Operations
Three useful signal operations are
discussed below:
Time shifting
Time scaling
Time reversal (inversion)
Time shifting
Consider a signal x(t).
x
1
(t) = x(t T) is the same signal
delayed by T seconds.
x
2
(t) = x(t + T) is the same signal
advanced by T seconds.

In general, a negative shift is a shift
to the right. Similarly, a positive
shift is a shift to the left.
Example: Given x(t) below, sketch
x
1
(t) = x(t 1) and x
2
(t) = x(t + 1).
t
x(t)
1 2
0
10
t
x
2
(t) = x(t + 1)
1 -1
0
t
x
1
(t) = x(t - 1)
1 2
0 3
3
3
2
-1
-1
Replacing every t in a waveform
with t T shifts the waveform T
seconds to the right.
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Time scaling
Time scaling is the compression
or expansion of a signal.
Compressed signal
|(t) = x(2t) is a compressed
version of x(t) as shown on the
right.

In general, |(t) = x(at) represents
a compressed signal if a > 1.

Expanded signal
Similarly, |(t) = x(at) represents
an expanded signal if a < 1.
t
x(t)
T
2
0
10
t
|(t) = x(t/2)
0
t
|(t) = x(2t)
Original signal
0
T
1
Expanded signal
(a = 0.5)
Compressed signal
(a = 2)
2T
2
2T
1
2
T
1
2
T
2
Example
10
10
To scale any function by a,
replace each t by at in the
function.
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Example: Given x(t) below, sketch x
1
(t) = x(2t) and x
2
(t) = x(0.5t) = x(t/2).
t
x(t)
1 2
0
10
t
x
2
(t) = x(t/2)
1 -1
0
t
x
1
(t) = x(2t)
1 2
0 3
3
3
2
-1
-1
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Example: If x(t) = 10sin(4tt - u), sketch x(t), x
1
(t) = x(2t), and x
2
(t) = x(t/2).
Effect of time scaling on frequency: _________________________________
Effect of time scaling on amplitude: _________________________________
Effect of time scaling on phase: _____________________________________

t
x(t)
0.5 1.0
0
t
x
2
(t) = x(t/2)
0.5 -0.5 0
t
x
1
(t) = x(2t)
0.5 1.0 0
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.0
-0.5
-0.5
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Time reversal (inversion)
t
x(t)
0
10
t
x(-t)
0
Example
10
So, x(-t) represents the time reversal (or inverse) of x(t).
The graph of x(-t) can be formed by rotating the graph of x(t) 180 about
the y-axis.
To time-reverse a signal, replace every t with t.
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Example: Given x(t) below, sketch x(-t).
t
x(t)
1 2
0
10
3
-1
-2
-3
t
x(-t)
1 2
0
3
-1
-2
-3
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Combined operations
We can use various combinations of the three operations just covered: time shifting,
time scaling, and time reversal. The operations can often be applied in different orders,
but care must be taken.
Example: To form x(at - b) from x(t) we could use two approaches:

1) Time-shift then time-scale
A. Time-shift x(t) by b to obtain x(t - b). I.e., replace every t by t - b.
B. Time-scale x(t - b) by a (i.e., replace t by at) to form x(at - b)
2) Time-scale then time-shift
A. Time-scale x(t) by a to obtain x(at).
B. Time-shift x(at) by b/a (i.e., replace t with t b/a) to yield
x(a[t b/a]) = x(at b)
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Example: Given x(t) below, sketch x
1
(t) = x(2t - 1) and x
2
(t) = x(t/2 + 1).
t
x(t)
1 2
0
10
t
x
2
(t) = x(t/2 + 1)
1 -1
0
t
x
1
(t) = x(2t - 1)
1 2
0 3
3
3
2
-1
-1
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Lecture #7 EGR 261 Signals and Systems
Example: Given x(t) and y(t) below, express y(t) in terms of x(t)
t
x(t)
4
2
0
0
t
y(t)
12
4
0
0