Statistics for Business and

Economics
Chapter 6
Inferences Based on a Single Sample:
Tests of Hypothesis
Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish Types of Hypotheses
2. Describe Hypothesis Testing Process
3. Explain p-Value Concept
4. Solve Hypothesis Testing Problems Based
on a Single Sample
5. Explain Power of a Test
Statistical Methods
Statistical
Methods
Estimation
Hypothesis
Testing
Inferential
Statistics
Descriptive
Statistics
Hypothesis Testing
Concepts
Hypothesis Testing
Population







I believe the
population mean
age is 50
(hypothesis).
Mean
X = 20
Random
sample




Reject
hypothesis!
Not close.
Whats a Hypothesis?
A belief about a population
parameter
Parameter is
population mean,
proportion, variance
Must be stated
before analysis
I believe the mean GPA of
this class is 3.5!
1984-1994 T/Maker Co.
Null Hypothesis
1. What is tested
2. Has serious outcome if incorrect decision made
3. Always has equality sign: =, s, or >
4. Designated H
0
(pronounced H-oh)
5. Specified as H
0
: = some numeric value
Specified with = sign even if s or >
Example, H
0
: = 3
Alternative Hypothesis
1. Opposite of null hypothesis
2. Always has inequality sign: =, <, or >
3. Designated H
a

4. Specified H
a
: =, <, or > some value
Example, H
a
: < 3
Identifying Hypotheses
Steps
Example problem: Test that the population mean
is not 3
Steps:
State the question statistically ( = 3)
State the opposite statistically ( = 3)
Must be mutually exclusive & exhaustive
Select the alternative hypothesis ( = 3)
Has the =, <, or > sign
State the null hypothesis ( = 3)
State the question statistically: = 12
State the opposite statistically: = 12
Select the alternative hypothesis: H
a
: = 12
State the null hypothesis: H
0
: = 12

Is the population average amount of TV
viewing 12 hours?
What Are the Hypotheses?
State the question statistically: = 12
State the opposite statistically: = 12
Select the alternative hypothesis: H
a
: = 12
State the null hypothesis: H
0
: = 12

Is the population average amount of TV
viewing different from 12 hours?
What Are the Hypotheses?
State the question statistically: s 20
State the opposite statistically: > 20
Select the alternative hypothesis: H
a
: > 20
State the null hypothesis: H
0
: = 20

Is the average cost per hat less than or equal
to $20?
What Are the Hypotheses?
State the question statistically: > 25
State the opposite statistically: s 25
Select the alternative hypothesis: H
a
: > 25
State the null hypothesis: H
0
: = 25

Is the average amount spent in the bookstore
greater than $25?
What Are the Hypotheses?
Basic Idea
Sample Means
= 50
H
0
Sampling Distribution
It is unlikely
that we would
get a sample
mean of this
value ...
20
... if in fact this were
the population mean
... therefore, we
reject the
hypothesis that
= 50.
Level of Significance
1. Probability
2. Defines unlikely values of sample statistic if
null hypothesis is true
Called rejection region of sampling
distribution
3. Designated o (alpha)
Typical values are .01, .05, .10
4. Selected by researcher at start
Rejection Region
(One-Tail Test)
H
o
Value
Critical
Value
o
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Region
Sampling Distribution
1 o
Level of Confidence
Observed sample statistic
Rejection Region
(One-Tail Test)
Sampling Distribution
Level of Confidence
H
o
Value
Critical
Value
o
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Region
Sampling Distribution
1 o
Level of Confidence
Observed sample statistic
Rejection Regions
(Two-Tailed Test)
H
o
Value
Critical
Value
Critical
Value
1/2
o
1/2
o
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Region
Sampling Distribution
1 o
Level of Confidence
Observed sample statistic
H
o
Value
Critical
Value
Critical
Value
1/2
o
1/2
o
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Region
Sampling Distribution
1 o
Level of Confidence
Rejection Regions
(Two-Tailed Test)
Sampling Distribution
Level of Confidence
Observed sample statistic
H
o
Value
Critical
Value
Critical
Value
1/2
o
1/2
o
Sample Statistic
Rejection
Region
Rejection
Region
Nonrejection
Region
Sampling Distribution
1 o
Level of Confidence
Rejection Regions
(Two-Tailed Test)
Sampling Distribution
Level of Confidence
Observed sample statistic
Decision Making Risks
Errors in
Making Decision
1. Type I Error
Reject true null hypothesis
Has serious consequences
Probability of Type I Error is o (alpha)
Called level of significance
2. Type II Error
Do not reject false null hypothesis
Probability of Type II Error is | (beta)
Decision Results
H
0
: Innocent
Jury Trial
Actual Situation
Verdict Innocent Guilty
Innocent Correct Error
Guilty Error Correct
H
0
Test
Actual Situation
Decision H
0
True H
0
False
Accept
H
0
1 o
Type II
Error
(|)
Reject
H
0
Type I
Error (o)
Power
(1 |)
& Have an
Inverse Relationship
You cant reduce both
errors simultaneously!
Factors Affecting
1. True value of population parameter
Increases when difference with hypothesized
parameter decreases
2. Significance level, o
Increases when o decreases
3. Population standard deviation, o

Increases when o

increases
4. Sample size, n
Increases when n decreases
Hypothesis Testing Steps
H
0
Testing Steps
State H
0

State H
a

Choose o
Choose n
Choose test
Set up critical values
Collect data
Compute test statistic
Make statistical decision
Express decision
One Population Tests
One
Population
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Mean Proportion Variance
_
2
Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Two-Tailed Z Test
of Mean ( Known)
One Population Tests
One
Population
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Mean Proportion Variance
_
2
Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Two-Tailed Z Test
for Mean ( Known)
1. Assumptions
Population is normally distributed
If not normal, can be approximated by
normal distribution (n > 30)
2. Alternative hypothesis has = sign
x
x
X X
Z
n

o
o

= =
3. Z-Test Statistic
Two-Tailed Z Test
for Mean Hypotheses
H
0
: = 0 H
a
: 0
Z
0
Reject H
0
o / 2 o / 2
Reject H
.500
- .025
.475

Z 0
o
= 1
Two-Tailed Z Test
Finding Critical Z
What is Z given o = .05?
o / 2 = .025

Z .05 .07
1.6 .4505 .4515 .4525
1.7 .4599 .4608 .4616
1.8 .4678 .4686 .4693
.4744 .4756
.06
1.9 .4750
Standardized Normal
Probability Table (Portion)


1.96 -1.96
Two-Tailed Z Test Example
Does an average box of cereal
contain 368 grams of cereal?
A random sample of 25 boxes
showed x = 372.5. The
company has specified o to
be 25 grams. Test at the .05
level of significance.
368 gm.
Two-Tailed Z Test Solution
H
0
:
H
a
:
o =
n =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

= 368
= 368
.05
25
Z 0 1.96 -1.96
.025
Reject H
0
Reject H
0
.025
372.5 368
1.50
15
25
X
Z
n

o

= = = +
Do not reject at o = .05
No evidence average
is not 368
Two-Tailed Z Test Thinking
Challenge
Youre a Q/C inspector. You want to find out
if a new machine is making electrical cords to
customer specification: average breaking
strength of 70 lb. with o = 3.5 lb. You take a
sample of 36 cords & compute a sample mean
of 69.7 lb. At the .05 level of significance, is
there evidence that the machine is not meeting
the average breaking strength?
Two-Tailed Z Test Solution*
H
0
:
H
a
:
o =
n =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

= 70
= 70
.05
36
Z 0 1.96 -1.96
.025
Reject H
0
Reject H
0
.025
69.7 70
.51
3.5
36
X
Z
n

o

= = =
Do not reject at o = .05
No evidence average
is not 70
One-Tailed Z Test
of Mean ( Known)
One-Tailed Z Test
for Mean ( Known)
1. Assumptions
Population is normally distributed
If not normal, can be approximated by
normal distribution (n > 30)
2. Alternative hypothesis has < or > sign
3. Z-test Statistic
x
x
X X
Z
n

o
o

= =
One-Tailed Z Test
for Mean Hypotheses
H
0
: = 0 H
a
: < 0
Z
0
Reject H
0
o
Must be significantly
below
Z
0
o
Reject H
0
H
0
: = 0 H
a
: > 0
Small values satisfy H
0
.
Dont reject!
.500
- .025
.475

Z 0
o
= 1
One-Tailed Z Test
Finding Critical Z
What Is Z given o = .025?
o = .025


1.96
Z .05 .07
1.6 .4505 .4515 .4525
1.7 .4599 .4608 .4616
1.8 .4678 .4686 .4693
.4744 .4756
.06
1.9 .4750
Standardized Normal
Probability Table (Portion)

One-Tailed Z Test
Example
Does an average box of cereal
contain more than 368 grams
of cereal? A random sample of
25 boxes showed x = 372.5.
The company has specified o to
be 25 grams. Test at the .05
level of significance.
368 gm.
One-Tailed Z Test Solution
H0:
Ha:
o =
n =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

= 368
> 368
.05
25
Z 0 1.645
.05
Reject
372.5 368
1.50
15
25
X
Z
n

o

= = = +
Do not reject at o = .05
No evidence average is
more than 368
One-Tailed Z Test Thinking
Challenge
Youre an analyst for Ford. You
want to find out if the average miles
per gallon of Escorts is at least 32
mpg. Similar models have a
standard deviation of 3.8 mpg. You
take a sample of 60 Escorts &
compute a sample mean of 30.7
mpg. At the .01 level of
significance, is there evidence that
the miles per gallon is at least 32?
One-Tailed Z Test Solution*
H0:
Ha:
o =
n =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

= 32
< 32
.01
60
Z 0 -2.33
.01
Reject
30.7 32
2.65
3.8
60
X
Z
n

o

= = =
Reject at o = .01
There is evidence average
is less than 32
Observed Significance
Levels: p-Values
p-Value
1. Probability of obtaining a test statistic more
extreme (s or >) than actual sample value,
given H
0
is true
2. Called observed level of significance
Smallest value of o for which H
0
can be
rejected
3. Used to make rejection decision
If p-value > o, do not reject H
0

If p-value < o, reject H
0
Two-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Example
Does an average box of cereal
contain 368 grams of cereal? A
random sample of 25 boxes
showed x = 372.5. The
company has specified o to be
25 grams. Find the p-Value.
368 gm.
Two-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Solution
Z
0 1.50
Z value of sample
statistic (observed)

372.5 368
1.50
15
25
X
Z
n

o

= = = +
1/2 p-Value 1/2 p-Value
Two-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Solution
Z value of sample
statistic (observed)

p-value is P(Z s -1.50 or Z > 1.50)
Z
0 1.50 -1.50
From Z table:
lookup 1.50
.4332

.5000
- .4332
.0668

Two-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Solution
1/2 p-Value
.0668
1/2 p-Value
.0668
p-value is P(Z s -1.50 or Z > 1.50) = .1336
Z value of sample
statistic
From Z table:
lookup 1.50
.5000
- .4332
.0668


Z
0 1.50 -1.50
Two-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Solution
0 1.50 -1.50
Z
Reject H
0
Reject H
0
1/2 p-Value = .0668 1/2 p-Value = .0668
1/2 o = .025 1/2 o = .025
(p-Value = .1336) > (o = .05).
Do not reject H
0
.
Test statistic is in Do not reject region
One-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Example
Does an average box of cereal
contain more than 368 grams
of cereal? A random sample
of 25 boxes showed x = 372.5.
The company has specified o
to be 25 grams. Find the p-
Value.
368 gm.
One-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Solution
Z
0 1.50

Z value of sample
statistic
372.5 368
1.50
15
25
X
Z
n

o

= = = +
One-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Solution
Use
alternative
hypothesis
to find
direction
p-Value is P(Z > 1.50)
Z value of sample
statistic


p-Value
Z
0 1.50
From Z table:
lookup 1.50
.4332

.5000
- .4332
.0668

One-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Solution
p-Value
.0668
Z value of sample
statistic
From Z table:
lookup 1.50
Use
alternative
hypothesis
to find
direction
.5000
- .4332
.0668


p-Value is P(Z > 1.50) = .0668


Z
0 1.50
.4332
o = .05
One-Tailed Z Test
p-Value Solution
0 1.50
Z
Reject H
0
p-Value = .0668
(p-Value = .0668) > (o = .05).
Do not reject H
0
.
Test statistic is in Do not reject region
p-Value
Thinking Challenge
Youre an analyst for Ford. You
want to find out if the average
miles per gallon of Escorts is at
least 32 mpg. Similar models
have a standard deviation of 3.8
mpg. You take a sample of 60
Escorts & compute a sample mean
of 30.7 mpg. What is the value of
the observed level of significance
(p-Value)?
Use
alternative
hypothesis
to find
direction

p-Value
Solution*
Z
0 -2.65
Z value of sample
statistic

From Z table:
lookup 2.65
.4960

p-Value
.004
.5000
- .4960
.0040

p-Value is P(Z s -2.65) = .004.
p-Value < (o = .01). Reject H
0
.
Two-Tailed t Test
of Mean ( Unknown)
One Population Tests
One
Population
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Mean Proportion Variance
_
2
Test
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test for Mean
(o Unknown)
1. Assumptions
Population is normally distributed
If not normal, only slightly skewed & large
sample (n > 30) taken
2. Parametric test procedure
3. t test statistic
X
t
S
n

=
t
0
Two-Tailed t Test
Finding Critical t Values
Given: n = 3; o = .10
o /2 = .05
o /2 = .05


df = n - 1 = 2
v t
.10
t
.05
t
.025
1 3.078 6.314
12.706
2 1.886 2.920 4.303
3 1.638 2.353 3.182
Critical Values of t Table
(Portion)

2.920 -2.920

Two-Tailed t Test
Example
Does an average box of
cereal contain 368 grams of
cereal? A random sample
of 36 boxes had a mean of
372.5 and a standard
deviation of 12 grams. Test
at the .05 level of
significance.
368 gm.
Two-Tailed t Test
Solution
H0:
Ha:
o =
df =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

= 368
= 368
.05
36 - 1 = 35
t
0 2.030 -2.030
.025
Reject H
0
Reject H
0
.025
372.5 368
2.25
12
36
X
t
S
n

= = = +
Reject at o = .05
There is evidence population
average is not 368
Two-Tailed t Test
Thinking Challenge
You work for the FTC. A
manufacturer of detergent claims that
the mean weight of detergent is 3.25
lb. You take a random sample of 64
containers. You calculate the sample
average to be 3.238 lb. with a standard
deviation of .117 lb. At the .01 level
of significance, is the manufacturer
correct?
3.25 lb.
Two-Tailed t Test
Solution*
H0:
Ha:
o =
df =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

= 3.25
= 3.25
.01
64 - 1 = 63
t
0 2.656 -2.656
.005
Reject H
0
Reject H
0
.005
3.238 3.25
.82
.117
64
X
t
S
n

= = =
Do not reject at o = .01
There is no evidence
average is not 3.25
One-Tailed t Test
of Mean ( Unknown)
One-Tailed t Test
Example
Is the average capacity of
batteries at least 140 ampere-
hours? A random sample of 20
batteries had a mean of 138.47
and a standard deviation of
2.66. Assume a normal
distribution. Test at the .05
level of significance.
One-Tailed t Test
Solution
H0:
Ha:
o =
df =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

= 140
< 140
.05
20 - 1 = 19
t 0 -1.729
.05
Reject H
0
138.47 140
2.57
2.66
20
X
t
S
n

= = =
Reject at o = .05
There is evidence population
average is less than 140
One-Tailed t Test
Thinking Challenge
Youre a marketing analyst for Wal-
Mart. Wal-Mart had teddy bears on
sale last week. The weekly sales ($ 00)
of bears sold in 10 stores was:
8 11 0 4 7 8 10 5 8 3
At the .05 level of significance, is there
evidence that the average bear sales per
store is more than 5 ($ 00)?
One-Tailed t Test
Solution*
H0:
Ha:
o =
df =
Critical Value(s):
Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

= 5
> 5
.05
10 - 1 = 9
t
0 1.833
.05
Reject H
0
6.4 5
1.31
3.373
10
X
t
S
n

= = = +
Do not reject at o = .05
There is no evidence
average is more than 5
Z Test of Proportion
Data Types
Data
Quantitative Qualitative
Continuous Discrete
Qualitative Data
1. Qualitative random variables yield responses
that classify
e.g., Gender (male, female)
2. Measurement reflects number in category
3. Nominal or ordinal scale
4. Examples
Do you own savings bonds?
Do you live on-campus or off-campus?
Proportions
1. Involve qualitative variables
2. Fraction or percentage of population in a
category
3. If two qualitative outcomes, binomial
distribution
Possess or dont possess characteristic
4. Sample Proportion (p)
number of successes

sample size
x
p
n
= =
^
Sampling Distribution
of Proportion
1. Approximated by
Normal Distribution

Excludes 0 or n
2. Mean

3. Standard Error

P
p =
Sampling Distribution
where p
0
= Population Proportion
.0
.1
.2
.3
.0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
P
^
P(P
^
)
( )

p p n p n
n
p p
p
) 1 (
0 0

= o

Z
= 0
o
z
= 1
Z
Standardizing Sampling
Distribution of Proportion
Sampling
Distribution
Standardized Normal
Distribution
o
P
^

P
P
^
^
Z
p p p
p p
n
^
p
p
^
^
~

=



o
( ) 1
^
0
0 0
One Population Tests
One
Population
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Mean Proportion Variance
_
2
Test
(1 & 2
tail)
One-Sample Z Test
for Proportion
1. Assumptions
Random sample selected from a binomial
population
Normal approximation can be used if
0 0

15 and 15 np nq > >
2. Z-test statistic for proportion
0
0 0

p p
Z
p q
n

~
Hypothesized population
proportion
One-Proportion Z Test
Example
The present packaging system
produces 10% defective
cereal boxes. Using a new
system, a random sample of
200 boxes had 11 defects.
Does the new system produce
fewer defects? Test at the .05
level of significance.
One-Proportion Z Test
Solution
H0:
Ha:
o =
n =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

p = .10
p < .10
.05
200
Z 0 -1.645
.05
Reject H
0
0
0 0
11
.10

200
2.12
.10 .90
200
p p
Z
p q
n

~ = =

Reject at o = .05
There is evidence new
system < 10% defective
One-Proportion Z Test
Thinking Challenge
Youre an accounting manager. A
year-end audit showed 4% of
transactions had errors. You
implement new procedures. A random
sample of 500 transactions had 25
errors. Has the proportion of
incorrect transactions changed at the
.05 level of significance?
One-Proportion Z Test
Solution*
H0:
Ha:
o =
n =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

p = .04
p = .04
.05
500
Z 0 1.96 -1.96
.025
Reject H
0
Reject H
0
.025
0
0 0
25
.04

500
1.14
.04 .96
500
p p
Z
p q
n

~ = =

Do not reject at o = .05

There is evidence
proportion is not 4%
Calculating Type II Error
Probabilities
Power of Test
1. Probability of rejecting false H
0

Correct decision
2. Designated 1 - |
3. Used in determining test adequacy
4. Affected by
True value of population parameter
Significance level o

Standard deviation & sample size n
Finding Power
Step 1
X

0
= 368
Reject H
0
Do Not
Reject H
0
Hypothesis:
H
0
:
0
> 368
H
a
:
0
< 368
o = .05

Draw
15
25
n
o
=
Finding Power
Steps 2 & 3
X

a
= 360
True Situation:

a
= 360 (H
a
)


Draw
Specify
|
1-|
X

0
= 368
Reject H
0
Do Not
Reject H
0
Hypothesis:
H
0
:
0
> 368
H
a
:
0
< 368
o = .05

Draw
15
25
n
o
=
Finding Power
Step 4
363.065
065 . 363
25
15
64 . 1 368
0
=
= =
n
Z X
L
o

X

a
= 360
True Situation:

a
= 360 (H
a
)


Draw
Specify
1-|
X

0
= 368
Reject H
0
Do Not
Reject H
0
Hypothesis:
H
0
:
0
> 368
H
a
:
0
< 368
o = .05

Draw
15
25
n
o
=
Finding Power
Step 5
363.065
065 . 363
25
15
64 . 1 368
0
=
= =
n
Z X
L
o

X

a
= 360
True Situation:

a
= 360 (H
a
)


Draw
Specify
X

0
= 368
Reject H
0
Do Not
Reject H
0
Hypothesis:
H
0
:
0
> 368
H
a
:
0
< 368
o = .05

Draw
15
25
n
o
=
| = .154
1-| =.846

Z Table
Power Curves
Power Power
Power
Possible True Values for
a
Possible True Values for
a
Possible True Values for
a
H
0
: s
0
H
0
: >
0

H
0
: =
0

0
= 368 in
Example
Chi-Square (
2
) Test
of Variance
One Population Tests
One
Population
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
t Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Z Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Mean Proportion Variance
_
2
Test
(1 & 2
tail)
Chi-Square (
2
) Test
for Variance
1. Tests one population variance or standard
deviation
2. Assumes population is approximately
normally distributed
3. Null hypothesis is H
0
: o
2
= o
0
2
4. Test statistic
Hypothesized pop. variance
Sample variance
_
o
2
2
2
1)
=
(n S
0
Chi-Square (
2
) Distribution
Select simple random
sample, size n.
Compute s
2
Compute
_
2
=

(n-1)s
2
/
o
2
Astronomical number
of
_
2
values
Population
Sampling Distributions
for Different Sample
Sizes

o
_
2
1 2 3 0
What is the critical _
2
value given:
H
a
: o
2
> 0.7
n = 3
o =.05?
Finding Critical Value
Example
_
2
0
Upper Tail Area
DF .995 .95 .05
1 ... 0.004 3.841
2 0.010 0.103 5.991
_
2
Table
(Portion)
df = n - 1 = 2
5.991
Reject
o = .05
Finding Critical Value
Example
What is the critical _
2
value given:
H
a
: o
2
< 0.7
n = 3
o =.05?
What do you do
if the rejection
region is on the
left?

What is the critical _
2
value given:
H
a
: o
2
< 0.7
n = 3
o =.05?
Finding Critical Value
Example
.103
_
2
0
Upper Tail Area
DF .995 .95 .05
1 ... 0.004 3.841
2 0.010 0.103 5.991
_
2
Table
(Portion)
Upper Tail Area
for Lower Critical
Value = 1-.05 = .95
o = .05
Reject H
0
df = n - 1 = 2
Chi-Square (
2
) Test
Example
Is the variation in boxes of
cereal, measured by the
variance, equal to 15
grams? A random sample
of 25 boxes had a standard
deviation of 17.7 grams.
Test at the .05 level of
significance.
Chi-Square (
2
) Test
Solution
H0:
Ha:
o =
df =
Critical Value(s):

Test Statistic:
Decision:

Conclusion:

o
2
= 15
o
2
= 15
.05
25 - 1 = 24
_
2
0
o /2 = .025
39.364 12.401
= 33.42
2 2
2
2 2
0
( 1) (25 1) 17.7
15
n S
_
o

= =
Do not reject at o = .05
There is no evidence
o
2
is not 15
Conclusion
1. Distinguished Types of Hypotheses
2. Described Hypothesis Testing Process
3. Explained p-Value Concept
4. Solved Hypothesis Testing Problems Based
on a Single Sample
5. Explained Power of a Test