Statistical Quality Control

W. Edward Deming advocated the implementation of a statistical quality management

approach.
His philosophy behind this approach is reduce variation- fundamental to
the principle of continuous improvement and
the achievement of consistency, reliability, and uniformity.
It helps in trustworthiness, competitive position, and success.
Statistical Quality Control
Statistics: data sufficient enough to obtain a reliable result.
Quality: relative term and can be defined as totality of features and characteristics of a
product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied need (ISO).
Control: The operational techniques and activities (a system for measuring and checking)
used to fulfill the requirements for quality. It
incorporates a feedback mechanism system to explore the causes of poor
quality or unsatisfactory performance and
takes corrective actions.
also suggests when to inspect, how often to inspect, and how much to
inspect.
Basic Concept
Statistical Quality Control
A quality control system using statistical techniques to control quality by
performing
inspection,
testing and
analysis
to conclude whether the product is as stated or designed quality standard.
Relying on the probability theory, SQC
evaluates batch quality and
controls the quality of processes or products
It makes the inspection more reliable and less costly.
The basis of the measurement is the performance indicator, either individual,
group or departmental calculated over time (hourly, daily, or weekly).
These performance measures are plotted on a chart.
Pattern obtained from plotting these measures are basis of taking
appropriate actions so that
The process variation in minimized and
Major problems are prevented in future.
The timing and type of, and responsibility for, these actions depends on
whether the causes of variation is controlled or uncontrolled
Basic Concept .Contd
Statistical Quality Control
In repetitive manufacture of a product, even with refined machinery,
skilled operator, and selected material, variations are inevitable in the
quality of units produced due to interactions of various causes.
Variation may be due to
Common or random causes of variation (as a result of normal
variation in material, method, and so on that causes natural variation
in product or process quality) resulting in stable pattern of variation.
Special causes (changes in men, machine, materials or tools, jigs and
fixture and so on) resulting in a shift from the stable pattern of
variation.
SQC assists in timely identification and elimination of the problem
with an object of reducing variations in process or product.

The application of statistical method of collecting and analyzing
inspection and other data for setting the economic standards of
product quality and maintaining adherence to the standards so that
variation in product quality can be controlled
Basic Concept .Contd
Statistical quality control (SQC) is the term used to describe the
set of statistical tools used by quality professionals
SQC encompasses three broad categories of;
Descriptive statistics
used to describe quality characteristics and relationships.
the mean, standard deviation, and range.

Acceptance sampling used to randomly inspect a batch of products to
determine acceptance or rejection of entire lot based on the results.
Does not help to identify and catch the in-process problems

Statistical process control (SPC)
Involves inspecting the output from a process
Quality characteristics are measured and charted
Helpful in identifying in-process variations

Three SQC Categories


Variability: Sources of Variation
Variation exists in all processes.
Variation can be categorized as either;
Common or Random causes of variation, or
Random causes that cannot be identified
Unavoidable: inherent in the process
Normal variation in process variables such as material,
environment, method and so on.
Can be eliminated only through improvements in the system

Assignable causes of variation
Causes can be identified and eliminated
e.g. poor employee training, worn tool, machine needing repair
Can be modified through operator or management actions.

Traditional Statistical Tools
Descriptive Statistics include
Measure of accuracy (centering)
Measure of central tendency indicating the central
position of the series.
A measure of the central value is necessary to estimate
the accuracy or centering of a process.

The Mean- simply the average of a set of data
Sum of all the measurements/data divided by the
number of observations.
The Median- simply the value of middle item if the
data are arranged in ascending or descending order.
Applies directly if the number in the series is odd.
It lies between two middle numbers if the number
of the series is even.
The Mode- value that repeat itself maximum number
of times in the series.

Shape of Distribution of Observed Data
A measure of distribution of data
Normal or bell shaped
Skewed
n
x
x
n
1 i
i
=
=
1
K
j
j
X
K

=
=



Distribution of Data
Also a measure of quality
characteristics.
Symmetric distribution - same
number of data are observed above
and below the mean.
This is what we see only when
normal variation is present in the
data
Skewed distribution a
disproportionate number of data are
observed either above or below the
mean.
Mean and median fall at different
points in the distribution
Centre of gravity is shifted to
oneside or other.
Traditional Statistical Tools contd
Measure of Precision or Spread
Reveals the extent to which numerical data
tend to spread about the mean value.
The Range- the simplest possible measure
of dispersion.
Difference between largest and smallest
observations in a set of data.
o Depends on sample size and it tends
to increase as sample size increases.
o Remains the same despite changes
in values lying between two extreme
values.

Standard Deviation- a measure deviation
of the values from the mean.

Small values >> data are closely
clustered around the mean
Large values >> data are spread out
around the mean.
( )
1 n
X x

n
1 i
2
i

=

=
Statistical Process Control
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
Statistical evaluation of the output of a process during production.
Goal is to make the process stable over time and then keep it stable unless the
planned changes are made.
Statistical description of stability requires that pattern of variation remains
stable over time, not that there be no variation in the variable measured.
In statistical process control language:
A process that is in control has only common or random cause variation -
an inherent variability of the system.
When the normal functioning of the prosess is disturbed by some
unpredictable events, special cause variation is added to common cause
variation.

Applying SPC to service
Nature of defect is different in services
Service defect is a failure to meet customer requirements
One way to deal with service quality is to devise quantifiable measurement
of service elements
Number of complaints received per month,
Number of telephone rings before call is answered
Hospitals
timeliness and quickness of care, staff responses to requests, accuracy of lab
tests, cleanliness, courtesy, accuracy of paperwork, speed of admittance and
checkouts
Grocery Stores
waiting time to check out, frequency of out-of-stock items, quality of food
items, cleanliness, customer complaints, checkout register errors
Airlines
flight delays, lost luggage and luggage handling, waiting time at ticket
counters and check-in, agent and flight attendant courtesy, accurate flight
information, passenger cabin cleanliness and maintenance
Fast-Food Restaurants
waiting time for service, customer complaints, cleanliness, food quality, order
accuracy, employee courtesy
Catalogue-Order Companies
order accuracy, operator knowledge and courtesy, packaging, delivery time,
phone order waiting time
Insurance Companies
billing accuracy, timeliness of claims processing, agent availability and
response time


Statistical Process Control
Statistical Process Control: Control Chart
Control Chart
A graphical display of data over time (data are displayed in time sequence in
which they occurred/measured) used to differentiate common cause variation
from special cause variation.
Control charts combine numerical and graphical description of data with the
use of sampling distribution
normal distribution is basis for control chart.
Goal of using this chart is to achieve and mainatain process stability
A state in which a process has displayed a certain degree of consistency
Consistency is characterized by a stream of data falling within the control
limits.
Basic Components of a Control Chart
A control chart always has
a central line usually mathematical average of
all the samples plotted;
upper control and lower control limits defining
the constraints of common variations or range
of acceptable variation;
Performance data plotted over time.
Lines are determined from historical data.
Control Chart Contd
When to use a control chart?
Controlling ongoing processes by finding and correcting problems as they
occur.
Predicting the expected range of outcomes from a process.
Determining whether a process is stable (in statistical control).
Analyzing patterns of process variation from special causes (non-routine
events) or common causes (built into the process).
Determining whether the quality improvement project should aim to prevent
specific problems or to make fundamental changes to the process.
Control Chart Basic Procedure
Choose the appropriate control chart for the data.
Determine the appropriate time period for collecting and plotting data.
Collect data, construct the chart and analyze the data.
Look for out-of-control signals on the control chart.
When one is identified, mark it on the chart and investigate the cause.
Document how you investigated, what you learned, the cause and how it was
corrected.
Continue to plot data as they are generated. As each new data point is plotted,
check for new out-of-control signals
Control Chart Contd
Interpretation of control chart
Points between control limits are due to
random chance variation
One or more data points above an UCL or
below a LCL mark statistically significant
changes in the process
A process is in control if
No sample points outside limits
Most points near process average
About equal number of points above and below centerline
Points appear randomly distributed
A process is assumed to be out of control if
Rule 1: A single point plots outside the control limits;
Rule 2: Two out of three consecutive points fall outside the two sigma warning limits
on the same side of the center line;
Rule 3: Four out of five consecutive points fall beyond the 1 sigma limit on the same
side of the center line;
Rule 4: Nine or more consecutive points fall to one side of the center line;
Rule 5: There is a run of six or more consecutive points steadily increasing or
decreasing
Time period
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
Control Chart Contd
Setting Control Limits
Type I error
Concluding a process is not in control when it actually is.
Type II error
Concluding a process is in control when it is not.
In control Out of control
In control No Error
Type I error
(producers risk)
Out of control
Type II Error
(consumers risk)
No error
Mean
LCL UCL
o/2 o/2
o = Probability
of Type I error
Mean
LCL UCL
o/2 o/2
o = Probability
of Type I error
General model for a control chart

UCL = + k
CL =
LCL = k


where
is the mean of the variable
is the standard deviation of the variable
UCL=upper control limit; LCL = lower control limit;
CL = center line.
k is the distance of the control limits from the center line,
expressed in terms of standard deviation units.
When k is set to 3, we speak of 3-sigma control charts.
Historically, k = 3 has become an accepted standard in
industry.
Control Chart Contd
Control Chart Contd
Suggested Number of Data Points
More data points means more delay
Fewer data points means less precision, wider limits
A tradeoff needs to be made between more delay and less
precision
Generally 25 data points judged sufficient
Use smaller time periods to have more data points
Fewer cases may be used as approximation

Sample Size
Attribute charts require larger sample sizes
50 to 100 parts in a sample
Variable charts require smaller sample sizes
2 to 10 parts in a sample

Control Chart Contd
Types of the control charts
Variables control charts
Variable data are measured on a continuous scale.
For example: time, weight, distance or temperature can
be measured in fractions or decimals.
Applied to data with continuous distribution

Attributes control charts
Attribute data are counted and cannot have fractions or
decimals.
Attribute data arise when you are determining only the
presence or absence of something:
success or failure,
accept or reject,
correct or not correct.
For example, a report can have four errors or five
errors, but it cannot have four and a half errors.
Applied to data following discrete distribution
Variable control charts
X-bar (mean chart)
R chart (range chart)
S chart (sigma chart)
Individual or run chart
i-chart
Moving range chart
Median chart
EWMA (exponentially weighted moving average chart)

General formulae for a control chart
UCL or UAL = + k
x
k = 3 ; Accepted Standard
UWL = + 2/3 k
x

CL =
LWL = 2/3 k
x

LCL or LAL = k
x


Control Chart Contd
= =

m
i
i
X
X
m

=
X
n
o
o
Control Chart Contd
Mean control charts
Used to detect the
variations in mean of
a process.
X-bar chart
Range control charts
Used to detect the changes in
dispersion or variability
of a process
R chart

System can show acceptable central
tendencies but unacceptable variability
or
System can show acceptable variability
but unacceptable central tendencies

Use X-bar and R charts together
Sample size : 2 ~ 10
Use X-bar and S charts together
Sample size : > 10
Use i-chart and Moving range chart
together
Sample size : 1 or one-at-time data

Interpret the R-chart first:
If R-chart is in control -> interpret the
X-bar chart -> (i) if in control: the
process is in control; (ii) if out of
control: the process average is out of
control
If R-chart is out of control: the
process variation is out of control ->
investigate the cause; no need to
interpret the X-bar chart
Control Chart Contd
Constructing a X-bar Chart:
A quality control inspector at the Cocoa Fizz soft drink company has taken
three samples with four observations each of the volume of bottles
filled. If the standard deviation of the bottling operation is 0.2 ounces,
use the below data to develop control charts with limits of 3 standard
deviations for the 16 oz. bottling operation.
Centerline and 3-sigma
control limit formulas
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3
Observation 1 15.8 16.1 16.0
Observation 2 16.0 16.1 15.9
Observation 3 15.8 15.8 15.9
Observation 4 15.9 15.9 15.8
Sample
means (X-
bar)
15.875 15.975 15.9
Sample
ranges (R)
0.2 0.3 0.2
3
X X
UCL X o = +
3
X X
LCL X o =
X
CL X =
m
i
i
X
X
m
=

=
X
n
o
o
Where,



m: # of sample mean
n: # of observations in each sample
Control Chart Contd
Centerline (x-double bar):



Control limits for3 limits:





Control Chart
Plot the sample mean in the
sequence from which it was
generated and interpret the
pattern in the control chart.
+ +
= =
15.875 15.975 15.9
x 15.92
3
| |
= + = + =
|
\ .
| |
= = =
|
\ .
x x
x x
.2
UCL x z 15.92 3 16.22
4
.2
LCL x z 15.92 3 15.62
4
Control Chart Contd
Second Method for X-bar Chart using Range and A
2
factor
Use this method when standard deviation for the process
distribution is unknown.
Control limits solution:






Center line and 3-sigma
control Fomulas:
1
2
k
i
i
x
n
R
R
k
R R
or
d d
n
o
o o
=
=
= =

;
;&
2
2
2
2
3
3
x
x
x
CL X
R
UCL X X A R
d n
R
LCL X X A R
d n
=
= + = +
= =
Control Chart Contd
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15
Calculate limits for X-bar chart using sample range
Control Chart Contd
R-Chart:
Always look at the Range chart first.
The control limits on the X-bar chart are
derived from the average range, so if the
Range chart is out of control, then the
control limits on the X-bar chart are
meaningless.
Look for out of control signal.
If there are any, then the special causes
must be eliminated.
There should be more than five distinct
values plotted, and no one value should
appear more than 25% of the time.
If there are values repeated too often,
then you have inadequate resolution
of your measurements, which will
adversely affect your control limit calculations.
Once the effect of the out of control points
from the Range chart is removed, look at
the X-bar Chart.
Standard Deviation of Range and
Standard Deviation of the process
is related as:



Centerline and 3-sigma
Control Limit Formulas:






Where
3
3
2
R
d
d R
d
o o = =
3 3
4
2 2
3 3
3
2 2
3 1 3
3 1 3
R
R
R
CL R
d d
UCL R R R D R
d d
d d
LCL R R R D R
d d
=
= + = + =
= = =
( )
( )
d
D
d
= +
3
4
2
1 3
max( , )
d
D
d
=
3
3
2
0 1 3
Control Chart Contd
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15
Calculate limits for R-chart

Control Chart Contd
S-Chart
The sample standard deviations are
plotted in order to control the
process variability.
For sample size (n>12),
With larger samples, the
resulting mean range does not
give a good estimate of
standard deviation
the S-chart is more efficient
than R-chart.
For situations where sample size
exceeds 12, the X-bar chart and the
S-chart should be used to check the
process stability.

Centerline and 3-sigma Control
Limit Formulas:







Where
s
s
s
CL S
c
UCL S S B S
c
c
LCL S S B S
c
=

= + =

= =
2
4
4
4
2
4
3
4
1
3
1
3
max( , )
c
B
c
c
B
c

= +

=
2
4
4
4
2
4
3
4
1
1 3
1
0 1 3
( )
&
k
n
j
j
i
j
i
j
S
x x
S S
n k
=
=

= =

2
1
1
1
Changing Sample Size on the X-bar and R Charts
In some situations, it may be of interest to know the effect of changing
the sample size on the X-bar and R charts. Needed information:
= average range for the old sample size
= average range for the new sample size
n
old
= old sample size
n
new
= new sample size
d
2
(old) = factor d
2
for the old sample size
d
2
(new) = factor d
2
for the new sample size
Centerline and 3-sigma Control Limit Formulas:
old
R
new
R
Control Chart Contd
( )
( )
( )
( )
old
old
x chart
d new
UCL x A R
d old
d new
LCL x A R
d old

(
= +
(

(
=
(

2
2
2
2
2
2
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
max ,
( )
old
new old
old
R chart
d new
UCL D R
d old
d new
CL R R
d old
d new
LCL D R
d old

(
=
(

(
= =
(


(

=
` (

)
2
4
2
2
2
2
3
2
0
Control Chart Contd
Control Chart Contd
Control Chart Contd
Control Chart : Interpreting the Patterns
Patterns
A nonrandom identifiable arrangement of plotted points on the chart.
Provides sufficient reasons to look for special causes.
Causes that affect the process intermittently and
can be due to periodic and persistent disturbances
Natural pattern
No identifiable arrangement of the plotted points exists
No point falls outside the control limit;
Majority of the points are near the centerline; and
Few points are close to the control limits
These patterns are indicative of a process that is in control.
One point outside the control limits
Also known as freaks and are caused by external disturbance
Not difficult to identify the special causes for freaks. However, make sure
that no measurement or calculation error is associated with it,
Sudden, very short lived power failure,
Use of new tool for a brief test period or a broken tool,
incomplete operation, failure of components
Interpreting the Patterns contd
Sudden shift in process mean
A sudden change or jump in process mean or average service level.
Afterward, the process becomes stable.
This sudden change can occur due to changes- intentional or otherwise in
Process settings e.g. temperature, pressure or depth of cut
Number of tellers at the Bank,
New operator, new equipment, new measurement instruments, new
vendor or new method of processing.
Gradual shift in the process mean
Such shift occurs when the process parameters change gradually over a period
of time.
Afterward, the process stabilizes
X-bar chart might exhibit such shift due to change in incoming quality of raw
materials or components over time, maintenance program or style of
supervision.
R-chart might exhibit such shift due to a new operator, decrease in worker skill
due to fatigue or monotoy, or improvement in incoming quality of raw
materials.
Interpreting the Patterns contd
Trending pattern
Trend represents changes that steadily increases or decreases.
Trends do not stabilize or settle down
X-bar chart may exhibit a trend because of tool wear, dirt or chip buildup,
aging of equipment.
R-chart may exhibit trend because of gradual improvement of skill resulting
from on-the-job-training or a decrease in operator skill due to fatigue.
Cyclic pattern
A repetitive periodic behavior in the system.
A high and low points will appear on the control chart
X-bar chart may exhibit a cyclic behavior because of a rotation of operator,
periodic changes in temperature and humidity, seasonal variation of incoming
components, periodicity in mechanical or chemical properties of the material
R-chart might exhibit cyclic pattern because of operator fatigue and
subsequent energization following breaks, a difference between shifts, or
periodic maintenance of equipment.
Graph will not show cyclic pattern, if the samples are taken too infrequently
Interpreting the Patterns contd
Zones for Pattern Test
UCL
LCL
Zone A
Zone B
Zone C
Zone C
Zone B
Zone A
Process
average
3 sigma = x + A
2
R
=
3 sigma = x - A
2
R
=
2 sigma = x + (A
2
R)
=
2
3
2 sigma = x - (A
2
R)
=
2
3
1 sigma = x + (A
2
R)
=
1
3
1 sigma = x - (A
2
R)
=
1
3
x
=
Sample number
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
11
|
12
|
13
UCL
LCL
Zone A
Zone B
Zone C
Zone C
Zone B
Zone A
Zone A
Zone B
Zone C
Zone C
Zone B
Zone A
Process
average
3 sigma = x + A
2
R
=
3 sigma = x - A
2
R
=
2 sigma = x + (A
2
R)
=
2
3
2 sigma = x - (A
2
R)
=
2
3
1 sigma = x + (A
2
R)
=
1
3
1 sigma = x - (A
2
R)
=
1
3
x
=
Sample number
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
11
|
12
|
13
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
11
|
12
|
13
Interpreting the Patterns contd
Performing a Pattern Test
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15
Interpreting the Patterns contd
Performing a Pattern Test
x x- - bar bar
Chart Chart
Example Example
(cont.) (cont.)
UCL = 5.08
LCL = 4.94
M
e
a
n
Sample number
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
5.10
5.08
5.06
5.04
5.02
5.00
4.98
4.96
4.94
4.92
x = 5.01
=
UCL = 5.08
LCL = 4.94
M
e
a
n
Sample number
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
5.10
5.08
5.06
5.04
5.02
5.00
4.98
4.96
4.94
4.92
x = 5.01
=
x = 5.01
=
Interpreting the Patterns contd
Performing a Pattern Test
1 1 4.98 4.98 B B B B
2 2 5.00 5.00 B B U U C C
3 3 4.95 4.95 B B D D A A
4 4 4.96 4.96 B B D D A A
5 5 4.99 4.99 B B U U C C
6 6 5.01 5.01 U U C C
7 7 5.02 5.02 A A U U C C
8 8 5.05 5.05 A A U U B B
9 9 5.08 5.08 A A U U A A
10 10 5.03 5.03 A A D D B B
SAMPLE SAMPLE x x ABOVE/BELOW ABOVE/BELOW UP/DOWN UP/DOWN ZONE ZONE
1 1 4.98 4.98 B B B B
2 2 5.00 5.00 B B U U C C
3 3 4.95 4.95 B B D D A A
4 4 4.96 4.96 B B D D A A
5 5 4.99 4.99 B B U U C C
6 6 5.01 5.01 U U C C
7 7 5.02 5.02 A A U U C C
8 8 5.05 5.05 A A U U B B
9 9 5.08 5.08 A A U U A A
10 10 5.03 5.03 A A D D B B
SAMPLE SAMPLE x x ABOVE/BELOW ABOVE/BELOW UP/DOWN UP/DOWN ZONE ZONE
1 1 4.98 4.98 B B B B
2 2 5.00 5.00 B B U U C C
3 3 4.95 4.95 B B D D A A
4 4 4.96 4.96 B B D D A A
5 5 4.99 4.99 B B U U C C
6 6 5.01 5.01 U U C C
7 7 5.02 5.02 A A U U C C
8 8 5.05 5.05 A A U U B B
9 9 5.08 5.08 A A U U A A
10 10 5.03 5.03 A A D D B B
SAMPLE SAMPLE x x ABOVE/BELOW ABOVE/BELOW UP/DOWN UP/DOWN ZONE ZONE SAMPLE SAMPLE x x ABOVE/BELOW ABOVE/BELOW UP/DOWN UP/DOWN ZONE ZONE
Control Chart for Attributes
Attributes are discrete events: yes/no or pass/fail
Construction and interpretation are same as that of variable control charts.
Attributes control charts
p chart
Uses proportion nonconforming (defective) items in a sample
Based on a binomial distribution
Can be used for varying sample size.
np chart
Uses number of nonconforming items in a sample
Should not be used when sample size varies
c chart
Uses total number of nonconformities or defects in samples of constant
size.
Occurence of nonconformities follows poisson distribution.
u chart
when the sample size varies, the number of nonconformities per unit is
used as a basis for this control chart.
Control Chart : p chart
Proportion nonconforming or defectives for each sample are plotted on the
p-chart
The chart is examined to determine whether the process is in control.
Means to calculate center line and control limits
No standard or target value of proportion nonconforming is specified
It must be estimated from sample infromation and
For each sample, proportion of nonconforming items are
determined as


The average of these individual sample proportion of
nonconforming items is used as the center line (CL
p
):



As true value of p is not known,
p-bar is used as an estimate
x
p
n
=
m m
i
i i
p
p x
CL p
m nm
= = =

( )
( )
p
p
p p
UCL p
n
p p
LCL p
n

= +

=
1
3
1
3
20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans 20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans
NUMBER OF NUMBER OF PROPORTION PROPORTION
SAMPLE SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE DEFECTIVE
1 1 6 6 .06 .06
2 2 0 0 .00 .00
3 3 4 4 .04 .04
: : : : : :
: : : : : :
20 20 18 18 .18 .18
200 200
20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans 20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans
NUMBER OF NUMBER OF PROPORTION PROPORTION
SAMPLE SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE DEFECTIVE
1 1 6 6 .06 .06
2 2 0 0 .00 .00
3 3 4 4 .04 .04
: : : : : :
: : : : : :
20 20 18 18 .18 .18
200 200
UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
p(1 - p)
n
0.10(1 - 0.10)
100
UCL = 0.190
LCL = 0.010
LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
p(1 - p)
n
0.10(1 - 0.10)
100
= 200 / 20(100) = 0.10
total defectives
total sample observations
p =
UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
p(1 - p)
n
0.10(1 - 0.10)
100
UCL = 0.190
UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
p(1 - p)
n
0.10(1 - 0.10)
100
UCL = 0.190
LCL = 0.010
LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
p(1 - p)
n
0.10(1 - 0.10)
100
LCL = 0.010
LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
p(1 - p)
n
0.10(1 - 0.10)
100
LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
p(1 - p)
n
0.10(1 - 0.10)
100
= 200 / 20(100) = 0.10
total defectives
total sample observations
p =
= 200 / 20(100) = 0.10
total defectives
total sample observations
p =
= 200 / 20(100) = 0.10
total defectives
total sample observations
p =
If the target or standard value is specified
Center line is selected as that target value i.e.
CL
p
= p
o
where, p
o
represent a standard value
Control limits are also based on the target velue.
If the lower control limit for p is turned out to be negative, LCL is simply
counted as zero.
Lowest possible value for proportion of nonconformng item is zero
Control Chart : p chart Contd
Control Chart : p chart Contd
Variable sample size
Changes in sample size casues the control limits to change, although the
center line remained fixed.
Control limits can be constructed:
For individual samples
If no standard value is given and sample mean proportion nonconforming
is p-bar, control limit for sample i with size n
i
are





Using average sample size

Where

( )
( )
i
p p
UCL p
n
p p
LCL p
n

= +

=
1
3
1
3
( )
( )
p p
UCL p
n
p p
LCL p
n

= +

=
1
3
1
3
m
i
i
n
n
m
=
=

1
Control Chart : c chart
No standard given
Average number of nonconformities per sample unit is found from the sample
observation and is denoted by c-bar.
The center line and control limits are:





If lower control limit is found to be less than zero, it is converted to zero.

Standard given
if the specified target for the number of nonconformities per sample unit be c
o.
.
The center line and control limits are then calculated from:


c
c
c
CL c
UCL c c
LCL c c
=
= +
=
3
3
c o
c o o
o o o
CL c
UCL c c
LCL c c
=
= +
=
3
3
Control Chart : c chart Contd
Number of defects in 15 sample rooms Number of defects in 15 sample rooms
1 12 1 12
2 8 2 8
3 16 3 16
: :
: :
: :
: :
15 15 15 15
190 190
SAMPLE SAMPLE
c c = = 12.67 = = 12.67
190 190
15 15
UCL UCL = = c c + + z zo o
c c
= 12.67 + 3 12.67 = 12.67 + 3 12.67
= 23.35 = 23.35
LCL LCL = = c c + + z zo o
c c
= 12.67 = 12.67 - - 3 12.67 3 12.67
= 1.99 = 1.99
NUMBER
OF
DEFECTS
Number of defects in 15 sample rooms Number of defects in 15 sample rooms
1 12 1 12
2 8 2 8
3 16 3 16
: :
: :
: :
: :
15 15 15 15
190 190
SAMPLE SAMPLE
c c = = 12.67 = = 12.67
190 190
15 15
c c = = 12.67 = = 12.67
190 190
15 15
c c = = 12.67 = = 12.67
190 190
15 15
190 190
15 15
UCL UCL = = c c + + z zo o
c c
= 12.67 + 3 12.67 = 12.67 + 3 12.67
= 23.35 = 23.35
UCL UCL = = c c + + z zo o
c c
= 12.67 + 3 12.67 = 12.67 + 3 12.67
= 23.35 = 23.35
LCL LCL = = c c + + z zo o
c c
= 12.67 = 12.67 - - 3 12.67 3 12.67
= 1.99 = 1.99
NUMBER
OF
DEFECTS
3 3
6 6
9 9
12 12
15 15
18 18
21 21
24 24
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
e
f
e
c
t
s
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
e
f
e
c
t
s
Sample number Sample number
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16
UCL = 23.35
LCL = 1.99
c = 12.67
3 3
6 6
9 9
12 12
15 15
18 18
21 21
24 24
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
e
f
e
c
t
s
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
e
f
e
c
t
s
Sample number Sample number
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16
UCL = 23.35
LCL = 1.99
c = 12.67
3 3
6 6
9 9
12 12
15 15
18 18
21 21
24 24
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
e
f
e
c
t
s
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
e
f
e
c
t
s
Sample number Sample number
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16
UCL = 23.35
LCL = 1.99
c = 12.67