ASSINGMENT 2

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
CONTENTS
CHIP FORMATION
CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL
TOOL LIFE AND WEAR
CUTTING FLUID
CHIP FORMATION
As the tool and work piece make
contact the tip of the tool directs
a powerful force into the work
piece material in a direction
approximately perpendicular to
the rake angle, this force
increases as the work piece
continues to traverse, until the
material shears in the direction
of this force. The area of
material that shears is called the
shear plane. (The shear plane is
a plane and not a line because
the material shears across the
whole width of the cut.)
If the rake angle is zero the shear plane will
become approximately parallel with the
direction of cut and a true chip cannot
form; the result would be a distorted work
piece and possibly a chipped or broken
tool.

The clearance angle ensures only the
cutting edge of the tool contacts the
workpiece and the back, or heel, of the tool
does not rub the finished surface
degrading finish and consuming extra
power.
smaller the wedge angle the weaker, and
less able to dissipate heat, is the tip of the
tool, hence the perfect rake and clearance
angles for a given material are often a
compromise between outright cutting
ability and adequate strength.
TYPES OF CHIP FORMED
Discontinuous chips
o Typically associated with brittle metals
like Cast Iron
o As feed is increased, some
compression takes place
o As the chip starts up the chip-tool
interference zone,
increased stress occurs until the metal
reaches a
saturation point and fractures off the
work-piece.
Continuous Chips
o Continuous ribbon of metal that
flows up
the chip/tool zone.
o Usually considered the ideal
condition for
efficient cutting action.
Discontinuous chips.
This type of chip is usually formed when cutting hard, brittle materials,
partly because these materials cannot withstand high shear forces and
therefore the chips formed shear cleanly away. However, the chips formed
may be firmly or loosely attached to each other or may leave the cutting
area in a fine shower as often encountered when cutting hard Brass. When
discontinuous chips are formed there is a greater possibility of tool chatter;
unless the tool, tool-holder and workpiece are held very rigidly; due to
pressure at the tool tip increasing during chip formation and then releasing
suddenly as the chip shears see

Continuous chips.
This type of chip is usually formed when cutting soft or ductile materials such as
Aluminium or Copper (fig 1.1.4b). There is less likelihood of chatter and surface
finish is usually better than when discontinuous chips are formed. A disadvantage
of continuous chips is the fact that they can become very long and become
entangled with the machine or pose a safety hazard. This problem can be
overcome by the use of chip-breakers; a device clamped to the top of the tool
that encourages the chip to curl more tightly, hitting the workpiece and breaking
off.
CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL
Carbon steel
High speed steel
Stellite
Tungsten carbide
Ceramics
Diamond
Cemented oxides

Carbon steel
- Limited tool life. Therefore, not suited to mass
production
- Can be formed into complex shapes for small
production runs
- low cost
- suited to hand tools, and wood working
- Carbon content about 0.9 to 1.35% with a hardness
ABOUT 62C Rockwell
- Maximum cutting speeds about 26 ft/min. dry
- The hot hardness value is low. This is the major factor
in tool life.


High speed steel
- an alloyed steel with 14-22% tungsten, as well as
cobalt, molybdenum and chromium, vanadium.
- Appropriate heat treating will improve the tool
properties significantly (makers of these steels often
provide instructions)
- can cut materials with tensile strengths up to 75
tons/sq.in. at speeds of 50-60 fpm
- Hardness is in the range of 63-65C Rockwell
- The cobalt component give the material a hot
hardness value much greater than Carbon Steels
- Used in all type of cutters, single/multiple point tools,
and rotary tools

Stellite
- a family of alloys made of cobalt, chromium, tungsten
and carbon
- The material is formed using electric furnaces, and
casting technique, and it cannot be rolled, or worked.
- The material has a hardness of 60-62C Rockwell
without heat treating, and the material has good hot
hardness properties
- Cutting speed of up to 80-100 fpm can be used on
mild steels
- The tools that use this method either use inserts in
special holders, or tips brazed to carbon steel shanks
Tungsten carbide
- Produced by sintering grains of tungsten carbide in a cobalt matrix
(it provides toughness).
- Other materials are often included to increase hardness, such as
titanium, chrome, molybdenum, etc.
- Compressive strength is high compared to tensile strength,
therefore the bits are often brazed to steel shanks, or used as
inserts in holders
- These inserts may often have negative rake angles
- Speeds up to 300 fpm are common on mild steels
- Hot hardness properties are very good
- coolants and lubricants can be used to increase tool life, but are
not required.
- special alloys are needed to cut steel

ceramics
- sintered or cemented ceramic oxides, such as
aluminum oxides sintered at 1800F
- Can be used for turning and facing most metals,
except for nimonic alloys and titanium. Mild steels can
be cut at speeds up to 1500 fpm.
- These tools are best used in continuous cutting
operations
- There is no occurrence of welding, or built up edges
- coolants are not needed to cool the workpiece
- Very high hot hardness properties
- often used as inserts in special holders
Diamonds
- a very hard material with high resistance to
abrasion
- very good for turing and boring, producing
very good surface finish
- operations must minimize vibration to
prolong diamond life
- also used as diamond dust in a metal matrix
for grinding and lapping. For example, this is
used to finish tungsten carbide tools
Cemented oxides
- produced using powder metallurgy
techniques
- suited to high speed finishing
- cutting speeds from 300 to 7500 fpm
- coolants are not required
- high resistance to abrasive wear and
cratering
TOOL WEAR
gradual wearing of certain regions of the face and flank of the
cutting tool, and
abrupt tool failure.
The term machinability refers to the ease with which
a metal can be machined to an acceptable surface
finish.

Materials with good machinability require little power
to cut, can be cut quickly, easily obtain a good finish,
and do not wear the tooling much; such materials are
said to be free machining. The factors that typically
improve a material's performance often degrade its
machinability. Therefore, to manufacture components
economically, engineers are challenged to find ways
to improve machinability without harming
performance.
.
Machinability can be difficult to predict because machining
has so many variables. In most cases, the strength and
toughness of a material are the primary factors.

Strong,
tough materials are usually more difficult to machine
simply because greater force is required to cut them.
Other important factors include the chemical composition,
thermal conductivity and microstructure of the material,
the cutting tool geometry, and the machining process
parameters. Sometimes, especially for non-metals, the
ancillary factors are most important. For example, soft
materials like plastics can be difficult to machine because
of their poor thermal conductivity.


Quantifying machinability
There are many factors affecting machinability, but no widely
accepted way to quantify it. Instead, machinability is often
assessed on a case-by-case basis, and tests are tailored to the
needs of a specific manufacturing process. Common metrics
for comparison include tool life, surface finish, cutting
temperature, and tool forces and power consumption.

Tool life method
Machinability can be based off of the measure of how long a tool
lasts. This can be useful when comparing materials that have similar
properties and power consumptions, but one is more abrasive and
thus decreases the tool life. The major downfall with this approach is
that tool life is dependent on more than just the material is it
machining; other factors include cutting tool material, cutting tool
geometry, machine condition, cutting tool clamping, cutting speed,
feed, and depth of cut. Also, the machinability for one tool type
cannot be compared to another tool type (i.e. HSS tool to a carbide
tool).

Tool forces and power consumption method
The forces required for a tool to cut through a material is
directly related to the power consumed. Therefore, tool
forces are often given in units of specific energy. This leads
to a rating method where higher specific energies equal
lower machinability. The advantage of this method is that
outside factors have little effect on the rating.
[3]

[edit] Surface finish method
The surface finish is sometimes used to measure the
machinability of a material. Soft, ductile materials tend to
want to form a built up edge. Stainless steel and other
materials with a high strain hardening ability also want to
form a built up edge. Aluminium alloys, cold worked steels,
and free machining steels, as well as materials with a high
shear zone don't tend to form built up edges, so these
materials would rank as more machinable.
[4]


The advantage of this method is that it is easily measured with
the appropriate equipment. The disadvantage of this criterion is
that it is often irrelevant. For instance when making a rough cut,
the surface finish is of no importance. Also, finish cuts often
require a certain accuracy that naturally achieves a good
surface finish. This rating method also doesn't always agree
with other methods. For instance titanium alloys would rate well
by the surface finish method, low by the tool life method, and
intermediate by the power consumption method.
[4][5]

[edit] Machinability rating
The machinability rating of a material attempts to quantify the
machinability of various materials. It is expressed as a
percentage or a normalized value.
The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) determined
machinability ratings for a wide variety of materials by running
turning tests at 180 surface feet per minute (sfpm).
[6]
It then
arbitrarily assigned 160 Brinell B1112 steel a machinability
rating of 100%.
[6]
The machinability rating is determined by
measuring the weighed averages of the normal cutting speed,
surface finish, and tool life for each material.
[6]
Note that a
material with a machinability rating less than 100% would be
more difficult to machine than B1112 and material with a value
more than 100% easier.
Machinability ratings can be used in conjunction with the
Taylor tool life equation, VT
n
= C, in order to determine
cutting speeds or tool life. It is known that B1112 has a tool life
of 60 minutes at a cutting speed of 1000 sfpm. If a material
has a machinability rating of 70%, it can be determined, with
the above knowns, that in order to maintain the same tool life
(60 minutes) the cutting speed must be 70 sfpm (assuming
the same tooling is used).
[1]

22.12: Cutting Fluids
Purpose of cutting fluids
Reduce friction and wear
Cool cutting zone
Flush chips away from the cutting zone
Protect the machined surface from environmental corrosion
These factors improve tool life and help make a better
more efficient cut.
Image of cutting fluid
and its container
22.12: Cutting Fluids
Lubricants reduce friction
Coolants effectively reduce high temperatures of tools/ work
pieces
At times, using a cutting fluid may cause the material to
become curly, which concentrates the heat closer to the tip.
This is detrimental because it decreases the tools life.
It is these defects that have turned machinists to near-dry
machining (22.12).
22.12: Cutting Fluids
Types of cutting fluids:
Oils: mineral, animal, vegetable, compounded, and synthetic oils.
Only used in operations where temp rise is insignificant.
Emulsions: mixture of oil and water and additives. Good for
operations where temperature rise is significant.
Semisynthetics: chemical emulsions containing little mineral oil
diluted in water with additives that reduce size of particles.
Synthetics: chemicals with additives, diluted in water, without oil.
Image of a synthetic
cutting fluid.
22.12 Cutting Fluids
Methods of Application
Flooding: most common; rates of up to 225 L/min for multi-tooth
cutters; poor visibility; 100- 2000 Psi.
Mist: most effective w/ water based fluids; requires venting but is
popular because of good visibility; similar to using an aerolsol can;
10- 80 Psi.
High-pressure systems: use a powerful jet/nozzle to target the hot
area; 800- 5000 Psi; can be used as a chip-breaker to clear debris
away.
Through the cutting tool system: passages are made in the tool/
tool handle that allow for a direct route for the coolant to the hot
area.
22.12 Cutting Fluids
Special Considerations for use of cutting fluids
Machines need to be washed after fluids have been used.
Used cutting fluids may undergo chemical changes. Settling
skimming centrifuging and filtering help to avoid any bad
effects they may cause.
Cutting fluids containing:
Sulfur should not be used on Nickel based alloys.
Chlorine should not be used with Titanium

Application of Cutting Fluids
Fig : Schematic illustration of
proper methods of
applying cutting fluids in
various machining
operations: (a)turning,
(b)milling, (c)thread
grinding, and (d)drilling
Removal of chips, from a raw material, is performed
by a cutting tool that need a motion relative to raw
material.
This motion, named cutting motion, could be
practically a rotation one or a translation one.
The next two 3D animated models will ilustrate in a
synopsis way the cutting process, the chip removal
from a raw material.
First example is related to the case when the
cutting motion is a rotation one, like in turning
machining.
The second example is related to the case when the
cutting motion is a translation one, like in shapping
machining.