ME403 Chapter 2

2D Airfoil Aerodynamics
Lift is mainly provided by
the wing with an airfoil
cross-section shape
Airfoil Geometry
An airfoil is the 2D cross-
section shape of the wing,
which creates sufficient lift
with minimal drag
Historical Airfoils
Historical Airfoils
Typical Streamlines
Angle of Attack

c
h
o
r
d
lin
e

Pressure Distribution
99500
99550
99600
99650
99700
99750
99800
99850
99900
99950
100000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Chordwise Distance, x, m
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
e
,

P
,

N
/
s
q

m
Net Normal Force
Upper Surface Pressure
Lower Surface Pressure
n P P dx
l
c
u

( )
0
Pressure Coefficient Distribution
0
2
2
1

V
p p
c
p

2
2
1

V
p p
c
p

In free-stream:
At stagnation point (V=0):
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
0
0

V
V
V
p p
c
p

Positive Cp means the pressure is higher than the free-

stream (atmospheric) pressure, and negative Cp means
suction relative to free-stream pressure. The maximum,
which occurs at the stagnation point, is always 1.
Viscous Boundary Layer
Transition Separation
1
2
3
4
V
Edge of boundary layer
Velocity profile creates skin friction (shear) drag on surface
Curve fit formula for
turbulent boundary
layer (Re > 500,000):
Flat Plate Skin Friction Drag Coefficient
Evolution of
Airfoil Design
Laminar boundary
layer creates less skin
friction drag
Boundary Layer Flow Separation
When flow separation occurs,
there is also pressure drag.
100% Pressure Drag
Pressure (Form) Drag due to Flow Separation
Total Profile Drag
= Skin Friction Drag
+ Form Drag
Resultant Aerodynamic Force
A
ir
fo
il
Total Aerodynamic Force
(Sum of Pressure and Shear)
Lift
Drag

Lift & Drag Coefficients

C
h
o
r
d
L
in
e

normal force lift

V

drag
chordwise
force
S V
l
c
l
2
2
1

S V
d
c
d
2
2
1

Center of Pressure
The resultant aerodynamic force acts at the Center of
Pressure (c.p.), about which the moment is zero.
NACA Airfoils and Test Data
4-Digit Series

5-Digit Series

6 Series
Open-Circuit Wind Tunnel
Wind Tunnel Tests
Force transducer behind model senses lift, drag and pitching moment directly.
Motor-controlled mechanism adjusts the models angle of attack.
Closed-Circuit Wind Tunnel
Wing Section Models
Model for measuring lift,
drag and pitching moment
Model for measuring surface
pressure distribution
There is a maximum
Lift-to-Drag ratio (L/D).

Location of Center of
Pressure (c.p.) varies
with
NACA 0006 Data
at Re = 3,180,000
NACA 2312 Data
at Re = 3,120,000
Lift decreases and
drag increases
sharply beyond the
stall (max. C
l
) point,
due to boundary
layer separation.

Stalled Airfoil
Reynolds Number Effect
Since the c.p. varies with , it is more desirable to use a fixed Aerodynamic
Center (a.c.) as the point of action of the lift and drag. The pitching moment
about this point can be calculated, and is found insensitive to . For most
airfoils, the a.c. locates at around quarter chord (x=c/4).
Aerodynamic Center
c
m
V Sc
m

1
2
2

Pitching Moment
Coefficient:
Typical Non-Cambered Airfoil
Lift Curve & Drag Polar
NACA 0006
Typical Cambered Airfoil
NACA 2412
Lift Curve & Drag Polar
Airfoil Aerodynamic Characteristics
at Re = 6 million
NACA 0006 NACA 2412
Zero-Lift Angle of Attack (deg.) 0 -2
Stall Angle of Attack (deg.) 9 16
Maximum Lift Coefficient 0.9 1.7
Lift Curve Slope (1/deg.) 0.1 0.108
Moment Coefficient (before stall) 0 0.05
Minimum Drag Coefficient 0.005 0.006
Max. Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D) 0.7/0.0076 = 92.1 1.0/0.0088 = 113
Computation Fluid Dynamics Simulation
CFD Simulation: Near stall
CFD Simulation: Fully Stalled
Airfoil Generator at http://www.ae.su.oz.au/aero/info/index.html
Airfoil Analysis Code at http://www.ae.su.oz.au/aero/info/index.html