BEX 17003

ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS
TECHNOLGY

CHAPTER (6a)

Chapter 6
Sinusoidal a.c. Circuit

Content
Sinusoids
Complex numbers
Phasors
AC circuit analysis
Power in ac circuit

Sinusoids
Consider a sinusoidal wave in Figure
6.1. The sinusoidal signal can be
expressed as


where V
m
is the peak value (amplitude),
is the angular frequency, is the
phase angle and T is the period.

Sinusoidal signals are periodic,
repeating the same pattern in interval T,
which is
( ) ( ) t cos V t v
m
+ =
Figure 6.1
( ) ( ) t v T t v = +
Sinusoids (cont.)

The sine/cosine function completes 1 cycle in every 2 radian,
therefore

Frequency of sinusoidal signal is the number of completed
cycle in one second, which is


The angular frequency is given as



Angular frequency has a unit of radian/second (rad/s).
T
t
e
2
=
f t e 2 =
T
f
1
=
2 T =
Sinusoids (cont.)
Phase relationship:
Assume there are two sinusoidal
voltage signal as shown in Figure
6.2.
Since v
2
(t) reaches the peak
value first, therefore it is said that
v
2
(t) leads v
1
(t) by or v
1
(t) lags
v
2
(t) by |.
In this situation, both v
1
and v
2

are also said to be out of phase.
If | = 0, then v
1
(t) and v
2
(t) are
said to be in phase, in which they
reach the minimum and
maximum point at the same time.
Figure 6.2
Sinusoids (cont.)
Sinusoids can be expressed either in sine or cosine function.
Using the relationship shown below, we can transform a sine
function into cosine function and vice versa.
The transformation can be done using this relationship:
( )
( )
( )
( ) t sin 90 t cos
t cos 90 t sin
t cos 180 t cos
t sin 180 t sin
=
=
=
=
Sinusoids (cont.)
The root-mean-square (rms) value of a sinusoidal voltage
signal is also known as the effective value or DC-equivalent value .
The rms periodic voltage v(t) and its average power for a
sinusoidal voltage across a resistor is given as



Similarly for a periodic current i(t) flows through a resistor, the
rms value and its average power is given as


( )dt t v
T
V
T
2
0
1
}
=
rms
R
V
P
2
rms
avg
=
( )dt t i
T
I
T
2
0
1
}
=
rms
R I P
2
rms avg
=
RMS
In a circuit whose impedance consistsof a
pure resistance, the rms value of an ACwave is often
called the effective value or DC-equivalent value.
For example, if an AC source of 100 volts rms is
connected across a resistor, and the resulting
current causes 50 watts of heat to be dissipated by
the resistor, then 50 watts of heat will also be
dissipated if a 100-volt DC source is connected to
the resistor.
Sinusoids (cont.)
Sinusoidal signal is usually described in its amplitude. The
value of signal amplitude can be used to find the rms value
of the specified signal.
To find rms value from its amplitude




This formula is applies only to sinusoidal signal, which
means that this formula cannot be used to square waves and
triangular waves.
2
m
V
V =
rms
Example on Vm
For a sine wave, the rms value is 0.707 times
the peak value, or 0.354 times the peak-to-
peak value. Household utility voltages are
expressed in rms terms.? Aso-called 240-
volt" AC circuit carries about 339 volts peak
(pk), or 679 voltspeak-to-peak (pk-pk).
Complex numbers
A complex number involves a real number and an imaginary
number.
An imaginary number is represented as j where
Examples of complex numbers are 2 + j4 and 5+j6 where 2 and
5 are real numbers whereas j4 and j6 are imaginary numbers.
Complex numbers can be represented in complex plane, shown
in Figure 6.3, in which the real part is in horizontal coordinate
and the imaginary part is in vertical coordinate.

1 = j
Figure 6.3
Complex numbers (cont.)
Complex numbers in the form of x+jy are
in rectangular form. The conjugate of
rectangular form is obtained by changing
the sign of imaginary part.
For example, if Z = 3 - j4, therefore the
complex conjugate of Z is Z
*
= 3 + j4.
Complex number can also be
represented in polar form, as in Figure
6.4, by giving the magnitude and the
angle between the arrow and the
positive real axis.
Examples of complex number in polar
form are
Z = 30 5 Z
1
Z = 45 10 Z
2
and
Figure 6.4
Complex numbers (cont.)
Complex numbers can be converted from polar to rectangular
form, or vice versa, using the following relationship:
( )
( )
r rectangula to polar
sin Z y
cos Z x
polar to r rectangula
x
y
tan
y x Z

=
=

|
.
|

\
|
=
+ =
1
2 2
The third form of complex number is known as exponential
form. Exponential form of a complex number can be written as
follows:


Examples of exponential complex number are
sin jA cos A A Ae
j
+ = Z =
j20 j60
4e and 10e
Using calculator for conversion
Casio fx-570MX
Conversion from
rectangular to polar
Shift (+) => Pol(
Type 3, 4)
RCL E and F.
Casio fx-570MX
Conversion from polar
to rectangular
Shift (-) => Rec(
Type 5, 53.13)
RCL E and F.
Complex numbers (cont.)
Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are easier to be done
in rectangular form, and multiplication and division are better
performed in polar form.
Given a pair of complex numbers as follows:

Addition:
Subtraction:
Multiplication:

Division:

Reciprocal:

Square root:
1 1 1 1 1
r jy x z Z = + =
2 2 2 2 2
r jy x z Z = + =
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1 2 1
y y j x x z z + + + = +
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1 2 1
y y j x x z z + =
2 1 2 1 2 1
r r z z + Z =
2 1
2
1
2
1

r
r
z
z
Z =

r z
Z =
1 1
( ) 2 / r z Z =
Phasors
For a sinusoidal voltage of the form
we define the phasor as
Therefore, we define phasor of a sinusoid is a complex number
having a magnitude equals to the amplitude and the same
phase angle as the sinusoid.
If the sinusoid is in the form of
we have to convert into
Thus, the phasor are defined as

Similarly, for sinusoidal currents i
1
(t) and i
2
(t)

they can be expressed in phasor form
( ) ( ) t sin t v + =
2
( ) ( )
1 1 1
t cos V t v + =
1 1
V Z =
1
V
( ) ( ) + = 90
2 2 2
t cos V t v
Z = 90
2 2 2
V V
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 1 1 1
t sin I t i and t cos I t i + = + =
Z = Z = 90
2 2 2 1 1 1
I and I I I
Phasors (cont.)
Adding sinusoids using phasors:
Step 1: Determine the phasor for each term.
Step 2: Add the phasors using complex arithmetic.
Step 3: Convert the sum to polar form.
Step 4: Write the result as a time function.
Refer to the given example that illustrates adding sinusoids
using phasors.

Phasors (Resistor)
How to relate the phasor expression of sinusoidal voltage and
current with other circuit elements ?
Assuming we have a current defined as
If this current is passing through a resistor, the voltage across the
resistor is
and the phasor form is
where
( ) t cos I i
m
+ =
( ) t cos RI iR v
m
+ = =
I V R =
I
m
Z = I
Phasors (Inductor)
Assuming we have a current defined as
If this current is passing through an inductor L, the voltage across
the inductor is


and the phasor form is


Since and , thus

( ) t cos I i
m
+ =
( ) t sin LI
dt
di
L v
m
+ = =
( ) + + = 90 t cos LI v
m
( ) +
Z = = =
j90
m
j90 j
m
90 j
m
e LI e e LI e LI V
I = Z I
m
j e
j90
=

I V L j =
V = jLI
Phasors (Capacitor)
If the voltage across a capacitor is given as

the current through the capacitor is
and the phasor form is
( ) t cos V v
m
+ =
dt
dv
C i =
C j
C j
I
V V I = =
I = jCV
Phasors (cont.)
The current-voltage (I-V) relationship can be summarised as follows:

Element Time domain Frequency
domain
Impedance Reactance
L
C
v = Ri
dt
di
L v =
dt
dv
C i =
V = RI
V = jLI
C j
I
V =
R R
jL
j(-1/C)

L
-1/C
Phasors (cont.)
To determine phase relationships from a phasor diagram,
consider the phasors to rotate counterclockwise.
Then looking at a fixed point, if V
1
arrives first followed by V
2

after a rotation of , we say that V
1
leads V
2
by .
Alternatively, we could say that V
2
lags V
1
by . (Usually, is
taken as the smaller angle between the two phasors.)
Consider two voltages that can be
described as

and the phasors are

From phasor diagram in Figure 6.6, V
1

leads V
2
or V
2
lags V
1
.
( ) ( )

40 3
1
+ = t cos t v
( ) ( )

20 4
2
= t cos t v

40 3Z =
1
V

20 4 Z =
2
V
Figure 6.5
AC Circuit analysis
Kirchhoffs Laws in Phasor Form
We can apply KVL directly to phasors. The sum of the phasor
voltages equals zero for any closed path.
Similarly, KCL in phasors, the sum of the phasor currents entering
a node must equal the sum of the phasor currents leaving.
Circuit Analysis Using Phasors and Impedances
1. Replace the time descriptions of the voltage and current sources
with the corresponding phasors. (All of the sources must have the
same frequency.)
2. Replace inductances by their complex impedances Z
L
= jL.
Replace capacitances by their complex impedances Z
C
= 1/(jC).
Resistances have impedances equal to their resistances.
3. Analyze the circuit using any of the techniques studied earlier in
Chapter 3, performing the calculations with complex arithmetic.
AC Circuit analysis
Series-parallel combination
The rules in combining series-parallel impedances is the same as
resistors.
The only difference is that combining impedances involves
complex numbers.
Node-voltage method
In Chapter 3, you have seen node-voltage method applied in d.c.
circuit.
In ac circuit, the same procedure applies but all the circuit
elements must be converted into frequency domain.
Mesh-current method
Mesh-current method also has been introduced in d.c. analysis,
and this method can be applied in ac circuit with all circuit
elements expressed in frequency domain.
AC Circuit analysis (cont.)
Source transformation
Figure 6.6 shows the source transformation in ac circuit. The same
configuration can be seen in dc circuit, but now resistance (R) is
replaced with impedance (Z).
Figure 6.6
AC Circuit analysis (cont.)
Thevenin-Norton equivalent circuits
Figure 6.7 and Figure 6.8 illustrate the frequency domain version
of Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit respectively.
The technique in finding Z
Th
and V
Th
is the same in dc circuit but
now it involves the complex numbers.
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.7
Power in ac circuit
Power for Resistive load
Consider a network with pure resistive
circuit.




Plot of these quantities is shown in
Figure 6.9. Note that both current and
voltage are in phase.
Since p is always positive, it is said
that power transferred from source to
load is the average power or real
power.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t cos I V t i t v t p
t cos I t i
t cos V t v
m m
m
m
2
= =
=
=
Figure 6.9
Power in ac circuit (cont.)
Power for Inductive load
Consider a network with pure inductive
circuit.






Plot of these quantities is shown in Figure
6.10. Note that current lags voltage by 90.
When p is positive, power is delivered from
source to load and when p is negative,
power returns from inductor to source.
In inductive circuit, average power is zero,
the only power exists is known as reactive
power.
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) t sin
I V
t p
t sin t cos I V t i t v t p
t sin I - t cos I t i
t cos V t v
m m
m m
m m
m
2
2
90
=
= =
= =
=
Figure 6.10
Power in ac circuit (cont.)
Power for Capacitive load
Consider a network with pure capacitive
circuit.







Plot of these quantities is shown in Figure
6.11. Note that current leads voltage by
90.
When p is positive, power is delivered
from source to load and when p is
negative, power returns from capacitor to
source.
Similarly in capacitive circuit, only reactive
power exists with average power is zero.
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) t sin
I V
t p
t sin t cos I V t i t v t p
t sin I t cos I t i
t cos V t v
m m
m m
m m
m
2
2
90
=
= =
= + =
=
Figure 6.11
Power in ac circuit (cont.)
Consider an ac circuit in Figure 6.12 consists of a sinusoid
voltage source connected to resistor, inductor and a
capacitor.
Now, we want to find the average power, reactive power and
apparent power for this circuit.
Figure 6.12
Power in ac circuit (cont.)
Average power
This power is total power transferred to resistive load and given
as

where V
rms
= V
m
/2 and I
rms
= I
m
/2.
Power factor
The term cos() is called the power factor (PF) or power angle.
is the difference between voltage angle and current angle.

Reactive power
This power exists in inductor and capacitor. It is given as

Apparent power
This power is defined as the product of effective voltage and effective
current.
( ) u cos
rms rms
I V P =
( ) u cos PF =
i v
u u u =
( ) u sin
rms rms
I V Q =
rms rms
power apparent I V =
Power in ac circuit (cont.)
The relationship between real power P, reactive power Q,
apparent power and power angle can be represented by
power triangle in Figure 6.13.
Power triangle in Figure 6.13 (a) for inductive load with both
and Q are positive and Figure 6.13 (b) for capacitive load with
both and Q are negative.
Figure 6.13
Phasor Relationships for
Circuit Elements
Example 6
The voltage is applied to a 0.1 H inductor. Find the current
through the inductor.


) 45 60 cos( 12
0
+ = t v
Solution
For the inductor, where and
Hence,
A
x j L j
V
I
0
0
0 0
45 2
90 6
45 12
1 . 0 60
45 12
Z =
Z
Z
=
Z
= =
e
Converting to the time domain,
A t t i ) 45 60 cos( 2 ) (
0
=
LI j V e =
s rad / 60 = e V V
0
45 12Z =
The impedance Z, of the circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor
current I, measured in ohm.
6.8 IMPEDANCE and ADMITTANCE
C j
L j R
e
e
I
V , I V , I V = = =
The impedance Z is expressed as
I
V
Z =
Z
V
I
+ -
In the preceding section, we obtained the voltage-current relations
for the three passive elements as
These equations may be written in terms of the ratio of the phasor voltage
to the phasor current as
C j
L j R
e
e
1
I
V
,
I
V
,
I
V
= = =
IMPEDANCE and ADMITTANCE cont..
The impedance consist of the real component (resistance, R) and imaginary component
(reactance, X).


The total impedance connected in series is
n T
Z Z Z Z Z + + + + = ......
3 2 1
The total impedance connected in parallel is
n T
Z Z Z Z Z
1
......
1 1 1 1
3 2 1
+ + + + =
IMPEDANCE and ADMITTANCE cont..
R Z
R
=
L L
jX L j Z = = e
fL L X
L
t e 2 = =
C c
jX
C j
Z = =
e
1
fC C
X
C
t e 2
1 1
= =
For resistor
For capacitor
For inductor
IMPEDANCE and ADMITTANCE cont..
C
jX =
The admittance Y, is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S).
The admittance Y of the element is the ratio of the phasor current to the phasor
voltage.


The admittance of the passive elements is expressed as
V
I
Z
Y = =
1
C j Y
L j
Y
R
Y e
e
= = =
1 1
L
jX
1
=
jB G Y + = In complex quantity,
Where,
jX R
jB G
+
= +
1
IMPEDANCE and ADMITTANCE cont..
The total admittance connected in series is
n T
Y Y Y Y Y + + + + = ......
3 2 1
The total admittance connected in parallel is
n T
Y Y Y Y Y
1
......
1 1 1 1
3 2 1
+ + + + =
IMPEDANCE and ADMITTANCE cont..
Example 7

Find the total impedance for the
following circuit.
O 8
O 6 F 600
F 300
mH 10 mH 20 A t i(t) 377 sin 30 =
O = = =
=
+
=
O =


=

= =
= + =
= O =
+

=
=

5 . 2 ) 10 67 . 6 )( 377 (
67 . 6
10 20
) 10 )( 20 (
95 . 2
10 900 377
900 600 300
43 . 3
6 8
6 8
/ 377
:
3
6
j j jX Z
mH
m m
m m
L
j
j
C
j
jX Z
F F F C
Z R
s rad
Solution
L L
parallel
c c
parallel
R parallel
e

e
O + =
O Z =
Z
=
Z =
= + =

+ + = + + =
) 68 . 0 31 . 3 (
69 . 11 38 . 3
69 . 11 296 . 0
1
69 . 11 296 . 0
06 . 0 29 . 0 34 . 0 4 . 0 29 . 0
95 . 2
1
5 . 2
1
43 . 3
1 1 1 1 1
j
S
Z
S
j j j
j j Z Z Z Z
T
C L R T
impedance Total
O 8 O 6
F 600 F 300
mH 10 mH 20
A t i(t) 377 sin 30 =
The triangle impedance represent the relationship between resistance,
reactance and impedance.

TRIANGLE IMPEDANCE
Inductive Impedance
L j R jX R Z
L
e + = + =
Where
0 0
90 ; 0 Z = Z =
L
X L j R R e
Z
R
L j X
L
e =
u
( )
2
2
L R Z e + =
R
L e
u
1
tan

=
TRIANGLE IMPEDANCE
Capacitive Impedance
C
j
R jX R Z
C
e
= =
Where
0 0
90 ; 0 Z =

Z =
C
X
C
j
R R
e
2
2
1
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
C
R Z
e
CR e
u
1
tan
1
=
Z
R
C
X
C
e
1
=
u
a) Series RL Circuit
.


6.9 RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS
The equivalent impedance
L j R jX R Z
L
e + = + =
Where
R
L
and
L R Z
e
|
e
1
2 2
tan
) (

=
+ =
From Ohm Law
IZ V =
L R
V V
L jI IR
L j R I
+ =
+ =
+ =
e
e ) (
v ( t )
i (
t
)
R
L
I
R
V
R
L j
e
0
0
Z
rms
V
V
l
b) Parallel RL Circuit
.


RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS cont..
The equivalent impedance
L j R
L j R
Z
e
e
+
=
) (
From Ohm Law
) ( L j R
L j R
V I
e
e +
=
R L
I I
R
V
L
jV
+ =
+

=
e
v(t)
i(t)
R L
I
R L je
0
0 Z
rms
V
Exercise 1
Voltage v(t)= 200 sin (500t+60) V supplied to the parallel circuit below.
Find the current i(t).
.


RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS cont..
v ( t )
i ( t )
R L
5
20mH
Answer: i(t)= 44.74sin(500t+33.43) A
c) Series RC Circuit
.


RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS cont..
The equivalent impedance
|
.
|

\
|
= =
C
j
R jX R Z
C
e
From Ohm Law
IZ V =
C R
V V
C
jI
R I
C
j
R I
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
e
e
v(t)
i(t)
R
C
I
R
V
R
C je
1
0
0 Z
rms
V
V
C
Where
RC
and
C
R Z
e
|
e
1
tan
1
1
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
d) Parallel RC Circuit
.


RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS cont..
The equivalent impedance
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

=
C
j R
C
R
j
Z
e
e
1
From Ohm Law
jR
j C
V I

=
e
R C
I I
R
V
CV j
+ =
+ = e
v(t)
i(t)
R C
I
R
C je
1
0
0 Z
rms
V
Exercise 2
Calculate the total impedance of a series RC circuit if R=27, C=0.005 uF,
and the source frequency =1 kHz.
RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS cont..
Answer: ZT =31.8 k
e) RLC Circuit in Series
.


RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS cont..
From Ohm Law
IZ V =
( )
) (
C L R
C L
V V j V
IX IX j IR
+ =
+ =
v(t)
i(t)
R
C
I
R
V
R
C je
1
0
0 Z
rms
V
V
C
L
L je
L
The equivalent impedance
C L
jX jX R Z + =
where
( )
( )
R
X X
and
X X R Z
C L
C L

=
+ =
1
2
2
tan |
f) RLC Circuit in Parallel
.


RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS cont..
The equivalent impedance
C L
jX jX R Z
1 1 1 1
+ =
Therefore
v(t)
i(t)
R
C
I
R
c
jX
0
0 Z
rms
V
L L je
) )( ( ) ( ) (
)( (
)
C L C L
C L
jX jX jX R jX R
jX jX R
Z
+ +

=
C L C L
C L
X X jRX jRX
X RX
+
=
RLC Circuit in Parallel
.


RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS cont..
From Ohm Law
IZ V =
C L
C L C L
X RX
X X jRX jRX V
Z
V
I
) ( +
= =
R L C
L C
I jI jI
R
V
X
jV
X
jV
+ =
+ =
Exercise 3
Determine v0(t) in the circuit below.
RLC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS cont..
v ( t )
i ( t )
60
10mF 5H
v0
+
-
=20 cos (4t-15)
Answer: v0(t)= 17.15 cos (4t + 15.96) V