erratum

Cover page of Handout:

“Handout Contents –
Annex A: Chlorophyll and Light Absorptions”

“This document consists of 11 printed pages.”

CHLOROPLASTS
the mini factories in leaves
 overview of presentation

1. Iron Chlorosis – Causes, Effects & Solutions

2. Introduction to Chloroplast
3. Chloroplasts and Light-Dependent Reactions
4. Chloroplasts and Calvin Cycle Reactions
5. Structure-Function Relationship
Iron Chlorosis
 iron chlorosis

Iron Chlorosis is a disease in the leaves that lead

to the yellowing of leaves.

Yellowing of leaves is due to the lack of chlorophyll

pigments in plants.

Hence, Iron chlorosis reduces the amount of

chlorophyll available in plants.

What exactly causes iron chlorosis? Let’s explore...

 causes of iron chlorosis

Iron is an essential micronutrient in the plant.

Deficiency in iron will lead to iron chlorosis because

iron is required in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll.

Deficiency in iron usually occurs when pH of soil is

7 and above. Why?
Q
U pH 7 and above = alkali
I
Z Iron + alkali  Iron hydroxide + water
Fe(OH)2 is insoluble ⇒ reduction in iron content.
 causes of iron chlorosis

Porphyrins (a group ofbiosynthesis

chemical compounds) occur
of chlorophyll
in nature and in bio-inspired synthetic catalysts.
Porphyrin with an iron in the centre is called heme.
Heme which acts as a catalyst influence the
chlrophyll synthesis.
Thus, when iron deficiency occurs chlorophyll
synthesis may be impaired.
causes of iron chlorosis

structures of
chlorophyll
pigments.
Can you spot the
main similarity?
 causes of iron chlorosis

With iron-
deficiency,
this
compound porphyrin
will not Fe2+ structures
form. This used in
will affect chlorophyll
the synthesis –
production with an iron in
of centre (heme)
chlorophyll
leading to
Iron
Chlorosis.
 effects of iron chlorosis

The main effect is the yellowing of leaves.

healthy
leaves leaves
affected
by Iron
Chlorosis
 effects of iron chlorosis

Sometimes it may change yellow to white and

finally brown. This happens when iron chlorosis is
left untreated. This may lead to death of tree.

Healthy zone Dangerous Zone

So, what are the treatments available for Iron

Chlorosis? Lets explore..!
 soil testing

Before treating the affected plants and trees, soil testing

must be performed.

The main purpose is that it allows us to know the pH of

the soil.

Dig down 6 to 8 inches in

several different locations.
Collect soil from these
A portion and
locations of the mixture
mix them
is then used for testing.
together.
 treatments for iron chlorosis

Main treatments for Iron Chlorosis

Foliar Treatment
Foliar spray of iron sulphate or iron chelate solution
applied to leaves
 treatments for iron chlorosis

Main treatments for Iron Chlorosis

Soil treatment
This method refers to the lowering of soil’s pH. This
is a long-term solution.
But it is also the difficult method as correct amount
of iron sulphate need to be added so as to prevent
the soil from getting too acidic.
 treatments for iron chlorosis

Main treatments for Iron Chlorosis

Trunk Injection and Implantation

These methods involve the
necessary chemical being
injected or implanted into the
tree by creating holes in the
tree.
This is the most effective way
to green up iron chlorotic
trees.
 treatments for iron chlorosis

Main treatments for Iron Chlorosis

State a disadvantage of the Trunk Injection and

Implantation method.
Q
U Creating holes will encourage the entry of bacteria
I ⇒ decomposition of the part with hole. Eventually,
Z the whole tree/plant may die.
 iron chlorosis

Animation on Iron Chlorosis

http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp37/37020.html
Chloroplasts
introduction to chloroplasts

CHLOROPLASTS
The biochemical process
called photosynthesis
occurs in this organelle
They are only found in
plant cells and
photosynthetic bacteria.
 structure of chloroplast

Chlorophyll
Chloroplasts
Inner
In
A stack
the membrane
stroma,
of thylakoids
pigments
are
interconnected
contains
surrounded
=are
granum
a by
double
semi-fluid
thylakoids
(pl:
embedded
grana)
membrane.
called
are
on the
found.
stroma.
thylakoids.
 structure of chloroplast

Why are chloroplasts surrounded by double-

Q membrane?
U
This is to entirely separate the reactions taking
I
place in chloroplast from the reactions taking
Z
place in cytoplasm.
 introduction to chloroplasts

Chloroplast Animation

http://www.cnr.vt.edu/DENDRO/forestbiology/photosynthesis.swf
Photosynthesis
 photosynthesis in chloroplasts

The only function of chloroplast is to carry out the

photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis is separated into two main parts:

1. Light Dependent Reaction (LDR) Lets explore this

2. Calvin Cycle Reactions briefly soon..
 photosynthesis in chloroplasts

The general equation of photosynthesis is

LIGHT
6CO2 + 6H2O ENERGY
C6H12O6 + 6O2

The above equation is OVER-simplified. Explain why

Q 1. Does not reflect LDR and Calvin Cycle Reaction

U 2. Only visible light – a small part of the
I electromagnetic spectrum – is used.
Z
3. Certain wavelengths are more important that
others.
 light dependant reaction

This reaction takes place in thylakoids. 2. Electrons

of
chlorophyll
are boosted
T

and they
GH

e
are emitted.
LI

1. Light is 3. This
absorbed e e stimulates
by the the splitting
chlorophyll of H2O. O2 is
embedded released.
in
thylakois.
 light dependant reaction

This reaction takes place in thylakoids.

4. The
4. H will
+
energy
then diffuse released is
back e
used by
e
through a cytochromes
protein. This to pump
3. These
protein e e protons.
electrons
which is also
are carried This creates
an enzyme a H+
by use
will carriers.
the
At this part, gradient.
ions to form
some
ATP (energy
energy is
molecule)
released.
 light dependant reaction

The unused electrons may be used for 2 purposed:

1. they will be used to synthesise ATP again using
the previous method

2. Combine with Hydrogen Ions to reduce NADP to

NADPH
 light dependant reaction

The final step of LDR is non-cyclic DR:

electrons emitted from water is used to produce

NADPH
 calvin cycle reactions

This reaction is divided into three parts:

1. CO2 Fixation
CO2 and 5-carbon RuBP form 6 carbon molecule.
They then split two 3-carbon molecules.
This is catalysed by RuBP carboxylase.

Why is the RuBP caboxylase found in great

Q abundance in chloroplast?
U
I The enzyme acts VERY slowly. So high amount of
Z enzyme will increase the reaction rate.
 calvin cycle reactions

This reaction is divided into three parts:

2. Reduction of CO2
The 3-C molecules (PGA) is reduced to PGAL
NADPH and ATP are used in this reaction.
PGAL is then used to convert to various organic
molecules.

Q What are the roles of ATP and NADPH?

U
I ATP – Provides energy; NADPH – Provides electrons
Z
 calvin cycle reactions

This reaction is divided into three parts:

3. Regeneration of RuBP
The unused PGAL molecules get more ATP.
The phosphorus in ATP will change PGAL to
RuBP
The cycle is now complete. The RuBP molecules
are used at the beginning of the Calvin Cycle.
calvin cycle reactions

Summary of Calvin
Cycle
Structure-Function
Relationship
 structure and their functions

Why chloroplasts are biconvex shape?

To increase surface area to maximise the

absorption of light.

Why do chloroplasts contain DNA?

DNA allows chloroplasts to replicate themselves.

∴ when cell divides, the new cells will receive the
correct number of chloroplasts.

VERY UNIQUE FEATURE OF

CHLOROPLAST AND MITOCHONDRION
 structure and their functions

Why do chloroplasts contain Ribosomes?

Allows chloroplast to produce their own enzyme

for photosynthesis.
Ribosomes are found in the stroma attached to
thylakoids.

ANOTHER UNIQUE FEATURE OF

CHLOROPLAST
 structure and their functions

How are thylakoids suited for photosynthesis?

Provides large surface area for the attachment of

1 enzymes and co-enzymes involved in the electron
transfer chain of the LDR.

Idea of Compartmentalisation – Allows different

2 enzyme-driven reactions to occur within the
chloroplasts simultaneously.
 structure and their functions

Why chloroplasts contain about 3000 grana?

This increases the surface area available for the

attachment of chlorophyll molecules to trap more
light.

Why do chlorophyll not shade each other?

Same answer as above.

 the end

any questions?