CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are a group of organic compounds that contains

only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
It usually have an empirical formula C
m
(H
2
O)
n

Common carbohydrates in biochemistry are glucose, fructose,
ribose, glyceraldehyde, sucrose, maltose, starch, cellulose and
glycogen.

Carbohydrates are termed sugar molecules, and are often
classified as, monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharide
and polysaccharide

Monosaccharide
Monosaccharides are the basic sugar molecules.
They are termed monomers, since they are the building block of
disaccharides and more complex carbohydrate.

Monosaccharide exists in the form of 3-C, 5-C and 6-C sugars.
The sugars associated with these number of carbons are called triose,
pentose and hexose sugar respectively.

Examples include glyceraldehyde (3-C), ribose (5C) and glucose (6-C)

Monosaccharides have the general formula C
n
H
2n
O
n

Glucose

Glucose formula is C
6
H
12
O
6

It exist as both a straight chain molecule and a ring molecule.
In solution, the ring molecule is the most abundant configuration.

Hexagonal ring structure: Straight Chain structure

Glucose Contd
The carbon atoms in organic molecules are usually numbered. In
the case of glucose, the numbering begins at the most
electron deficient carbon.
That is, the carbon attached to two oxygen atom is number one,
and the counting takes place in a clockwise direction.


Glucose Contd
Glucose, like other monosaccharides, exist in two forms, alpha
and beta glucose.

In -glucose, the hydroxyl group (OH
-
), attached to carbon-1 is
pointed in the opposite direction as carbon-6 (downward).
In -glucose, the hydroxyl group (OH
-
), attached to carbon-1, is
pointed in the same direction as carbon-6 (upward).

Fructose
Fructose has the same molecular formula as glucose, but differs
in molecular structure.

In the ring form, fructose has a 5-membered ring. It also has the
and forms.
In -fructose, the hydroxyl group (OH
-
), attached to carbon-2 is
drawn pointed upward.
In -fructose, the hydroxyl group (OH
-
), attached to carbon-2, is
pointed downward.
Alpha Fructose Beta Fructose

Disaccharide
Disaccharides are made up of two monomers.
These include sugars like maltose and sucrose.

Maltose is formed from the condensation reaction of two glucose
molecules. In this process a water molecule is lost. Enzymatic
hydrolysis reverses the process.
The glucose molecules are joined together by 1-4 glycosidic bond.

Disaccharide Contd
Sucrose is formed from the condensation reaction between
-glucose and -fructose. In this process a water molecule is
lost.
The sugar molecules are joined together by 1-2 glycosidic
bond.

Polysaccharide
The major polysaccharides of biological importance are starch,
cellulose and glycogen.

These are polymers of glucose; however, they differ in the type
of glucose present and the and the bond which link the
glucose monomers together.

Starch is commonly found in ..
Cellulose is commonly found in
Glycogen is commonly found in
Starch
Starch is made up of -glucose, and It exist in two forms, amylose
and amylopectin.
In amylose, the glucose monomers are linked by 1-4 glycosidic
bonds.
This produces an unbranched chain of glucose which then folds up
to form a coil or helix.

In amylopectin there are two types of glycosidic bonds: 1,4 and 1,6.
The 1,4 links are the same as in amylose. In addition some
glucose molecules have a 1-6 glycosidic link to a new glucose
molecule.

Amylopectin is therefore a branched polymer
Starch Contd
Amylose (common form of starch)


Starch Contd
Amylopectin


Starch Contd
Functions of Starch

It stores energy in plants
Provide food for plants during drought
Its storage provides mass for tubers, thus helping to anchor
the plant
To facilitate homeostasis in plants
Facilitates the transfer of energy from plants to animals
Facilitate the timely delivery of glucose from the gut
(intestine) to the blood.


Cellulose
Cellulose is an unbranched polymer composed of beta glucose
molecules.
The glucose monomers are linked by 1,4 glycosidic bonds. Hydrogen
bonds between adjacent cellulose molecules allow them to form
strong fibres



Glycogen
Glycogen is a -glucose polysaccharide, that has a closely
resembled configuration to starch-amylopectin. It has 1-4
and 1-6 glycosidic linkages. That is, it forms more branch
chains that amylopectin.


Glycogen Contd
Functions of glycogen

It allow animals to store energy (in liver and muscles).
I supplies the blood and animal cells with -glucose.
I helps to facilitate homeostasis in animals.
It enables muscle cells to receive energy in a timely
manner.
Tests Carbohydrates
Sugars are also classified as reducing and non-reducing sugars.

Reducing sugars are those that turns the blue Benedicts reagent to
a brick red precipitate, after heating. In this reaction, the Cu
2+
ion, of the copper sulphate solution, is reduced to Cu
+
ion
(copper oxide).
Examples of reducing sugars are glucose, fructose and maltose.

Non-reducing sugars are those that will not reduce Cu
2+
ion to Cu
+
ion. However, these sugars, eg. sucrose, can be hydrolyzed by
heating with dilute hydrogen acid, then upon further treatment
with Benedicts reagent, reduce Cu
2+
ion to Cu
+
ion.

In the hydrolysis reaction, the glycosidic bond in sucrose is broken
to release the monomers (glucose and fructose), which are
reducing sugars.