MODEL OF THE

SKIN STRUCTURE
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
LATEST UPDATE
Skin pigment renders sun's UV radiation harmless using projectiles
Date:
September 26, 2014
Source:
Lund University
Summary:
The pigment of the skin protects the body from the suns dangerous UV rays, but researchers have not until recently known how this works. Now they
report that skin pigment converts the UV radiation into heat through a rapid chemical reaction that shoots protons from the molecules of the pigment.
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Researchers at Lund University in Sweden and other institutions have worked out how the pigment of the skin manages to protect the body from the
sun's dangerous UV rays. The skin pigment converts the UV radiation into heat through a rapid chemical reaction that shoots protons from the
molecules of the pigment.
In a new study, the team from Lund University, working with colleagues in France and Italy, have studied pigment in the skin and its building blocks.
Pigment in both skin and hair comprises two different types of melanin: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Eumelanin makes us develop a suntan and gives
colour to brown and black hair, whereas those with red hair and pale skin instead have high levels of pheomelanin.
"We found that eumelanin converts harmful UV radiation into heat with almost 100 per cent efficiency. The chemical reaction is incredibly quick, taking
less that a thousandth of a billionth of a second," said Villy Sundstrm, Professor of Chemistry at Lund University.
What happens in detail in the chemical reaction is that a hydrogen ion -- a proton -- is ejected from the pigment at the same moment the UV light
reaches the pigment molecule. The chain of events could be likened to the melanin getting rid of the energy of the UV light by very quickly shooting a
proton projectile. This projectile in turn gives off energy to the surrounding membrane tissue in the form of heat. It has therefore converted dangerous
UV energy into harmless heat.
"In this way, the pigment disarms the energy in the UV light and prevents it causing harmful chemical reactions," said Villy Sundstrm.
Eumelanin is considered to be the pigment that protects against UV radiation while pheomelanin is believed to cause skin cancer in some way, which
explains why people with red hair are more likely to develop malignant melanoma. However, researchers have not previously been aware of what
chemical reactions UV light causes in the pigment. There has therefore also been a lack of knowledge of the pigment processes that lead to protection
against or development of cancer.
"By understanding how the body naturally protects itself against UV light, we can develop better sun protection products based on the same principles.
This would provide better protection against skin cancer," said Villy Sundstrm.
The idea is also in the long run to find treatment methods and substances that replace natural pigment for those with defective production of
eumelanin. Eumelanin is composed of two similar building blocks, but only one of them produces the protective effect. This shows that the effect is very
specific -- it is a matter of small differences in the chemical structure of the building blocks. This insight could prove important in the development of
substances for treatment and sun protection products.
VITILIGO TREATMENT HOLDS PROMISE FOR RESTORING
SKIN PIGMENTATION
September 17, 2014
Source:
Henry Ford Health System
Summary:
A treatment regimen is safe and effective for restoring skin pigmentation in vitiligo patients, according to a study. Our findings offer patients with vitiligo worldwide a renewed hope for a bright
future in the treatment of this disfiguring disease, says the studys lead author. Patients with lesions on their face and arms could have a more rapid response to the combination treatment.

Effects of the combination treatment on skin repigmentation, from top to bottom, at baseline, at 66 days and at 140 days of the study.
Credit: Image courtesy of Henry Ford Health System
[Click to enlarge image]
A treatment regimen is safe and effective for restoring skin pigmentation in vitiligo patients, according to a Henry Ford Hospital study.
"Our findings offer patients with vitiligo worldwide a renewed hope for a bright future in the treatment of this disfiguring disease," says Henry Lim, M.D., chair of Dermatology at Henry Ford and
the study's lead author. "Patients with lesions on their face and arms could have a more rapid response to the combination treatment."
Henry Ford dermatologists described the repigmentation results as "superior," and said the treatment combination holds promise as a future therapy for the more than 50 million people
worldwide living with vitiligo. It affects about one in every 100 people in the United States.
The study will be published online in the Journal of the American Medical Association-Dermatology.
In a multi-center study led by Henry Ford, dermatologists sought to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of a treatment combination of afamelanotide, a drug that induces skin pigmentation, and
phototherapy using narrowband ultraviolet-B rays (NB UVB). Phototherapy, or ultraviolet light therapy, is the treatment of choice for many patients with widespread vitiligo. It has been shown to
be effective, though the degree of repigmentation varies.
Dr. Lim, an international vitiligo expert, says afamelanotide "enhances the ability of the UVB to induce repigmentation of the skin."
Patients were randomly divided into two study groups: Group A received the combination therapy; Group B received only NB UVB treatment.
Key findings:
Repigmentation occurred faster in patients who received the combination treatment compared to patients who received NB UVB.
Patients who received the combination treatment achieved appearance of pigment on their face and arms after 40 days compared to 60 days for patients who received NB UVB.
In dark-skinned patients, repigmentation occurred faster in the combination group compared to the NB UVB group.
Afamelanotide is in the process of being submitted for approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use in treating vitiligo.
Vitiligo is a skin disease that causes the skin to lose color and develop white patches that vary in size and location. It develops when cells called melanocytes are killed by the body's immune
system, causing the area of skin to turn white because the cells no longer make pigment. Vitiligo is more noticeable in individuals with darker skin tones, but it affects all races and ethnicities.
While vitiligo is neither contagious nor life-threatening, there is no cure. However, it causes low self-esteem and depression for those living with the disease.
The Henry Ford study represents its latest research into investigating new treatment options for vitiligo. In a 2012 study published in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, Henry
Ford dermatologists showed the benefits of skin cell transplant surgery, called melanocyte-keratinocyte transplantation or MKTP. Henry Ford has since performed more than 190 MKTP
procedures on patients from Michigan, 23 other U.S. states and Canada.
For this new study, 55 patients were enrolled at four sites -- Henry Ford, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York and Vitiligo and Pigmentation Institute of Southern California and
University of California Davis' Department of Dermatology.
In the two study groups, 28 patients were enrolled in Group A and 27 patients in Group B. Both groups received phototherapy two to three times a week for six months for a total of 72
treatments. In addition to phototherapy, patients in Group A received a dose of 16 mg of afamelanotide in four monthly treatments. Afamelanotide, about the size of a grain of rice, was
implanted just under the skin.
Two common vitiligo assessment scoring systems -- Vitiligo Area Scoring Index and Vitiligo European Task Force -- were used to evaluate the repigmentation response.
While patients in both groups showed repigmentation, the response in Group A was superior to Group B by the 56th day of treatment and even better by the 168th day of treatment. The most
common side effect was redness of the skin.
MODEL OF THE
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of 270 bones at birth[1][2][3] this total decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones
have fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 30. The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage and the skull. The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is
formed by the pectoral girdles, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs.

The human skeleton serves six major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of ions and endocrine regulation.

The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long
bones, and pelves exist. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. The pelvis in
female skeletons is also different from that of males in order to facilitate child birth.
Updates on the Skeletal System
Definition
By Mayo Clinic Staff
Osteoporosis Insight

Osteoporosis causes bones to become weak and brittle so brittle that a fall or even mild stresses like
bending over or coughing can cause a fracture. Osteoporosis-related fractures most commonly occur in
the hip, wrist or spine.

Bone is living tissue, which is constantly being absorbed and replaced. Osteoporosis occurs when the
creation of new bone doesn't keep up with the removal of old bone.

Osteoporosis affects men and women of all races. But white and Asian women especially those who
are past menopause are at highest risk. Medications, healthy diet and weight-bearing exercise can
help prevent bone loss or strengthen already weak bones.

SYMPTOMS

There typically are no symptoms in the early stages of bone loss. But once bones have been weakened
by osteoporosis, you may have signs and symptoms that include:

Back pain, caused by a fractured or collapsed vertebra
Loss of height over time
A stooped posture
A bone fracture that occurs much more easily than expected
When to see a doctor

You may want to talk to your doctor about osteoporosis if you went through early menopause, took
corticosteroids for several months at a time or have a family history of hip fractures.


Causes
By Mayo Clinic Staff

Your bones are in a constant state of renewal
new bone is made and old bone is broken
down. When you're young, your body makes
new bone faster than it breaks down old bone
and your bone mass increases. Most people
reach their peak bone mass by their early 20s.
As people age, bone mass is lost faster than it's
created.

How likely you are to develop osteoporosis
depends partly on how much bone mass you
attained in your youth. The higher your peak
bone mass, the more bone you have "in the
bank" and the less likely you are to develop
osteoporosis as you age.