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UNIT 22: STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR AND DETAILING

Learning outcomes
LO1- Ability to determine the properties of structural materials
LO2- Understanding of fundamental structural concepts
LO3- Analysis of statically determinate structures
LO4- Design of structural elements
LO5- Detailing of structural elements

Links
Unit 26 : Properties and performance of construction materials
Unit 34 : Structural analysis and design




















10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
1 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
2
International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Loads acting on structures
Dead Loads (DL)
The loads which constant in magnitude and fixed in location through out the lifetime of the
structure. Major part is the weight of structure itself and all the other permanent
construction including services of a permanent nature.
The characteristic dead loads can be estimated using schedule of weights of building
materials given in BS 648 (Table 2.1), Reynolds Handbook or manufacturers literature.
Symbols
g
k
-: Uniformly distributed characteristic dead loads
G
k
-: Total characteristic dead loads



















G
k
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
3 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
4 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Live loads(LL), Imposed loads (IL)
The load assumed to be produced by the intended occupancy or use, including the weight of
movable partitions, distributed, concentrated, impact & inertia loads. Their magnitude and
distribution any given time are uncertain and even their maximum intensities throughout
the lifetime of the structure are not known with precision.
BS 6399: Part 1: 1996 Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads gives typical
characteristic imposed floor loads for different classes of structure.
Symbols
q
k
-: Uniformly distributed characteristic live loads
Q
k
-: Total characteristic live loads



















Q
k
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
5 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
6 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
7 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
8 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Environmental Loads
Consist mainly Snow load, Wind pressure and suction, Earthquake load (i.e inertia forces
caused by earthquake motions), Soil pressures on subsurface portions of structure, loads of
possible ponding of rain water on flat surfaces and forces caused by temperature
differentials. These loads are uncertain both magnitude & distribution.
Wind Loads (WL)
Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting on the structure or
equally well, exert suction or negative pressures on the structure. Under particular
situations, the latter may well lead to critical conditions and must be considered in the
design.
The characteristic wind loads acting on a structure can be assessed in accordance with the
recommendations given in CP3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 Wind Loads or BS 6399 : Part 2:
1997 Code of Practice for Wind Loads.
Symbols
w
k
-: Uniformly distributed characteristic live loads
W
k
-: Total characteristic live loads



















10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
9 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Estimation of Wind Loads
1. The basic wind speed V depends on the location in the country.
2. The design wind speed V
s
= VS
1
S
2
S
3
where,
S1 -: topography factor (normally taken as 1)
S2 -: factor depends on ground roughness, building size and height
above the ground
S3 -: statistical factor (normally taken as 1)
3. The dynamic pressure q = 0.613V
s
2
N/m
2
(SI units)is the pressure on a surface normal to
the wind and is modified by the dimensions of the building and by openings in the building
4. The wind force on a surface F = (C
pe
-C
pi
)qA

where,
C
pe
-: external pressure coefficient
C
pi
-: internal pressure coefficient
A -: area of the surface
5. The wind load on a building as a whole F = C
f
qA
e
where,
C
f
-: force coefficient , A
e
-: effective frontal area of the building

















10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
10 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
11 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
12 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
13 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
14 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
15 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
DESIGN METHODS




Relationship between stress and strength
1. Permissible stress design
In permissible stress design, sometimes referred to as modular ratio or elastic design, the
stresses in the structure at working loads are not allowed to exceed a certain proportion of
the yield stress of the construction material, i.e. the stress levels are limited to the elastic
range.
2. Load factor design
Load factor or plastic design was used to take account of the behaviour of the structure
once the yield point of the construction material had been reached. This approach involved
calculating the collapse load of the structure. The working load was derived by dividing the
collapse load by a load factor.
















10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
16 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
3. Limit State Design
The limit state design can be seen as a compromise between the permissible and load factor
methods. It is in fact a more comprehensive approach which takes into account both
methods in appropriate ways. Most modern structural codes of practice are now based on
the limit state approach such as,
BS 8110 for concrete BS 5950 for structural steelwork
BS 5400 for bridges BS 5628 for masonry
Code of practice for design in timber, BS5268 and old structural steelwork code, BS 449 are
based on permissible stress designs.
Ultimate limit state
The whole structure or its elements should not collapse, overturn or buckle when subjected
to the design loads. Considerations are,
Strength
The structure must be designed to carry the most severe combination of loads to which it is
subjected. The sections of the elements must be capable of resisting axial loads, shears and
moments derived from the analysis. The design is made for ultimate loads and design
strengths of materials with partial safety factors applied to loads and material strengths.
















10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
17 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Stability
The layout should be such as to give a stable and robust structure. Overall stability should
ensure compatibility of design and details of parts and components. The structure should be
such as to transmit all loads, dead, imposed and wind, safely to the foundations.
Robustness
Damage to a small area or failure of a single element should not cause collapse of a major
part of a structure. This means that the design should be resistant to progressive collapse.
Serviceability limit state
The structure should not become unfit for use due to excessive deflection, cracking or
vibration. Considerations are,
Deflection
The deformation of the structure should not adversely affect its efficiency or appearance.
Cracking
Cracking should be kept within reasonable limits by correct detailing
















10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
18 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Load factors and load combinations
















10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
19 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Load Transfer








Fig: Sequence of load transfer between element of a structure

Support Conditions
Pinned Connection
In this connection joint allows attached member to rotate freely but does not allow
translation in any direction. Consequently, the joint cannot provide moment resistance but
can provide force resistance in any direction.







10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
20 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Roller Connection
In addition to rotation, this connection also allows attached member to translate freely
parallel to the surface of the support, i.e. does not provide any force resistance parallel to
the surface of the support. However, the joint resists translations in the direction
perpendicular to the surface of the support.

Fixed Connection
This connection completely restrains rotations and translations of the attached members in
any direction. Consequently, the joint can provide moment and force resistances in any
direction.

Important-: For an object to be stable in equilibrium, the supports must be capable of
providing specific minimum number of force restraints. Ex: for a simple beam subjected to
the vertical and horizontal forces, the support must provide three force restraints for its
equilibrium corresponding to three conditions of equilibrium namely,
F
x
= 0, F
y
= 0, M
z
= 0







10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
21 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
22 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Problems

1. Calculate the self weight of a reinforced concrete beam of breadth 300mm, depth
600mm and length 6m.
2. A composite floor consisting of a 150mm thick reinforced concrete slab supported on
steel beams spanning 5m and spaced at 3m centers is to be designed to carry an
imposed load of 3.5 kN/m2. Assuming that the unit mass of the steel beams is 50kg/m
run, calculate the design loads on a typical internal beam.
3. The floor shown below with an overall depth of 225mm is to be designed to carry an
imposed load of 3 kN/m2 plus floor finishes and ceiling loads of 1kN/m2. Calculate the
design loads acting on beams B1-C1, B2-C2 and B1-B3 and columns B1 and C1. Assume
that all the column heights are 3m and that the beam and column dimensions are
225mmx350mm and 250mmx250mm respectively.
4. The cross section of a reinforced concrete building is shown in figure 4.1 below. The
frames are at 4.5m centers, the length of the building is 36m. Assuming the building is
to be constructed in center of the Colombo city, calculate the wind pressure acting on an
end frame and a mid frame.

















10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
23 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02









5. Determine the unknown support reactions R
A
and R
B
in the body due to applied load as
shown in Figure 5.1.








4
m

4
m

5
.
5
m

8m 6m
Figure 4.1

2a a 2a
5w
2w
Figure 5.1
Lecture Note 02 Contd
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
24 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02









5. Determine the unknown support reactions R
A
and R
B
in the body due to applied load as
shown in Figure 5.1.








4
m

4
m

5
.
5
m

8m 6m
Figure 4.1

2a a 2a
5w
2w
Figure 5.1
Lecture Note 02 Contd
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
25 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
STRUCTURAL THEORY

Classification based on the nature of internal forces
1. Axial force member
A member that is subjected either to axial tensile or axial compressive force is referred to
as an axial force member. Ex: a cable and truss member
2. Bending and shear resisting member
Members are subjected predominantly to bending or flexural actions. Ex: a member
subjected to loads transverse to its length.
3. Members subjected to torsion
Members are subjected predominantly to torsion or twisting actions. Ex : a shaft
transmitting motion from one shaft to other.
4. Members subjected to a combined action
Members are subjected to any combination of axial force, bending moment, shear force
and torsion















10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
26 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Basic rigid elements
1. Beams and Columns
Beams are generally horizontal, which carry loads applied transversely to their lengths
and transfer them to the supporting vertical columns or other supports. The beams bend
under transverse loads and are said to carry loads by bending. The elements carrying axial
compressive forces termed struts, when vertical they are termed columns.
2. Frames
A framed object or structure is made by assembling beam and column elements with rigid
joints.
3. Trusses
The truss is composed of short and straight discrete elements arranged in to triangulated
patterns. The truss is non-rigid, but it maintains its shape as a result of the exact way the
individual line elements are positioned relative to one another.
4. Arches
An arch is a curved line-forming structural member spanning between two points and
carry the loads to the supports while being subjected predominantly to axial compression.
5. Walls and Plates
These are rigid surface elements. A load-bearing wall can typically carry both vertically
and laterally acting loads along its length.

10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
27 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
Internal Forces
1. Tension force
Tension force tend to pull an element apart. The strength of a tension member is
generally independent of its length and tension stresses are uniformly distributed across the
cross section of the member.
2. Compression forces
Compression forces tend to crush or buckle the element. Short members tend to crush and
have higher strength compared to a tension member. The load carrying capacity of a long
member, however, decreases with the increase in the length. The long compression
members may become unstable and may suddenly snap out from beneath the load at
certain critical load levels. This phenomenon is called buckling. Because of this buckling
phenomenon, long compression members are not capable of carrying vey high loads.
3. Bending force
Bending force is a force state associate with bending of a member. The bending action
causes fibres on one face of the member to elongate, and hence are in tension, and fibres on
the opposite face to compress.
4. Shearing force
Shearing force is a force state associated with the action of opposing forces that tend to
cause one part of the member to slide with respect to the adjacent part.
10/10/2014
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
28 International College of Business and Technology
M/601/1282 - Lecture Note: 02
5. Torsion
Torsion is a twisting action. Both tension and compression stresses are normally
developed in the member subjected to torsion.
6. Bearing stresses
Bearing stresses exist at the interface between two members when forces are transferred
from one member to another. They act perpendicular to contact surfaces. The bearing
stresses are also developed at the ends of beams where they rest on the walls.

Idealization of Structures for Analysis
The primary aim of the analysis is to determine the reactions, internal forces and
deformation at any point of the given body caused by applied loads and forces. To achieve
this objective, it becomes necessary to idealize a body in a simplified form emendable to
analysis procedure. The members are normally represented by their centroidal axis.
Conditions of equilibrium
A structure in general is subjected to a set of forces which include external or applied forces,
internal forces or reactions that are developed within the body at connection points and
gravity forces caused by the mass of the elements. The structure must be in the state of
static equilibrium with respect to these forces.
i) Translational equilibrium F
x
=0, F
y
=0, F
z
=0
ii) Rotational equilibrium M
x
=0, M
y
=0, M
z
=0

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