MTH 251

Differential Calculus
Chapter 3 The Derivative

Section 3.1 Tangent Lines, Velocity, and
General Rates of Change
Copyright 2005 by Ron Wallace, all rights reserved.
Measuring Change
This section:
Several different problems with the
same solution!
Tangent lines to curves.
Rectilinear motion (i.e. motion along a line)
Average vs. Instantaneous Velocity
Rates of Change
Tangent Lines
Secant line:
A line that contains two points of a function.
Equation?
f(x)
Secant Line
(x
0
,y
0
)
(x
1
,y
1
)
0 1
0 1
x x
y y
m
s

=
) (
0 0
x x m y y
s
=
Eliminate the use of the variable y.
Tangent Lines
Secant line:
A line that contains two points of a function.
Equation?
f(x)
Secant Line
(x
0
,f(x
0
))
(x
1
,f(x
1
))
0 1
0 1
) ( ) (
x x
x f x f
m
s

=
) ( ) (
0 0
x x m x f y
s
=
Eliminate the use of x
1
.
x
0

Tangent Lines
Secant line:
A line that contains two points of a function.
Equation?
f(x)
Secant Line
(x
0
,f(x
0
))
(x
0
+h,f(x
0
+h))
h
x f h x f
m
s
) ( ) (
0 0
+
=
) ( ) (
0 0
x x m x f y
s
=
h
x
0
+h
Tangent Lines
Slope of the tangent line at x=x
0
:
The limit of the slope of the secant line
as h0.
h
x f h x f
m
h
t
) ( ) (
lim
0 0
0
+
=

) ( ) (
0 0
x x m x f y
t
=
x
0

f(x)
Secant Line
(x
0
,f(x
0
))
(x
0
+h,f(x
0
+h))
h
x
0
+h
NOTE: h can be negative!
Tangent Line
Rectilinear Motion
Measuring distance traveled along a
line with respect to time.
Velocity or Speed: distance/time
Average Velocity [over the interval: (t
0
, t
1
)]
Instantaneous Velocity [at t
0
]
0 1
0 1
) ( ) (
t t
t f t f
v
avg

=
h
t f h t f
v
h
) ( ) (
lim
0 0
0
+
=

) (t f s =
)
0 1
(where
0 0

) ( ) (
h t t
h
t f h t f
+ =
+
=
Rectilinear Motion
Measuring distance traveled along a
line with respect to time.
Acceleration: change-in-velocity/time
Average Acceleration [over: (t
0
, t
1
)]
Instantaneous Acceleration [at t
0
]
0 1
0 1
) ( ) (
t t
t g t g
a
avg

=
h
t g h t g
a
h
) ( ) (
lim
0 0
0
+
=

) (t f s =
)
0 1
(where
0 0

) ( ) (
h t t
h
t g h t g
+ =
+
=
) (t g v =
Rate of Change
Function: y = f(x)
One quantity determined by another.
Rate of Change:
How much y changes when x changes.
Average Rate of Change between two values
of x.
Instantaneous Rate of Change at a single
value of x.
0 1
0 1
) ( ) (
x x
x f x f
r
avg

= )
0 1
(where
0 0

) ( ) (
h x x
h
x f h x f
+ =
+
=
h
x f h x f
r
h
) ( ) (
lim
0 0
0
+
=

In applications, x and y can represent any two related quantities.
MTH 251
Differential Calculus
Chapter 3 The Derivative

Section 3.2 The Derivative Function
Copyright 2005 by Ron Wallace, all rights reserved.
Common Limit in Applications
h
x f h x f
h
) ( ) (
lim
0 0
0
+

The Derivative Defined

The Derivative of f with respect to x
is the function defined by the formula
Domain?
All values of x where this limit exists.
Range?
Depends of the function f(x).
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

f(x) is read: f prime of x
Clarification!
f(x) is NOT ...
the slope of the tangent line.
However, the geometric interpretation of
f(x) is the slope of the tangent line of f(x)
at any point.
the velocity of rectilinear motion.
the instantaneous rate of change of a
quantity.
These are all applications of the
derivative.
Examples
Differentiate the following functions.
Differentiate means, find the derivative of.
x x i
x
x h
x x x g
x x f
=
=
+ =
=
) (
1
) (
1 2 5 ) (
7 3 ) (
2
3 ) ( ' = x f
2 10 ) ( ' = x x g
2
2
1
) ( '

= = x
x
x h
2
1
2
1
2
1
) ( '

= = x
x
x i
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

Graphs of Functions & Derivatives
3 ) ( '
7 3 ) (
=
=
x f
x x f
2 10 ) ( '
1 2 5 ) (
2
=
+ =
x x g
x x x g
2
1
) ( '
1
) (
x
x h
x
x h
=
=
x
x i
x x i
2
1
) ( '
) (
=
=
Differentiable Defined
f(x) is differentiable at c if f(c) exists
i.e. if the limit in the definition exists when x=c.
f(x) is differentiable on/over (a,b) if f(c)
exists for all ce(a,b).
f(x) is differentiable on/over [a,b) if f(x) is
differentiable on/over (a,b) and
exists
similar for (a,b] and [a,b]
f(x) is differentiable everywhere if f(x) is
differentiable on/over (-,+).
h
a f h a f
a f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=
+

+
Where is f(x) not differentiable?
Three primary situations:
When f(x) is not continuous at c.
That is ...
f(c) is not defined or
lim
xc
f(x) does not exist or
lim
xc
f(x) f(c)
At a corner point
At a vertical tangent.
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

c c c c c
Differentiability & Continuity
If f(x) is differentiable at c, then f(x)
is continuous at c.
Proof:
)] ( ) ( [ lim
0
c f h c f
h
+

-
+
=

h
h
c f h c f
h
) ( ) (
lim
0
h
h
c f h c f
h h 0 0
lim
) ( ) (
lim

-
(

+
=
0 0 ) ( ' = - = c f
NOTE: Often it is easier to prove something is differentiable.
Differentiability & Continuity
If f(x) is differentiable at c, then f(x)
is continuous at c.
Proof:
)] ( ) ( [ lim
0
c f h c f
h
+

0 =
0 )] ( ) ( [ lim =

c f x f
c x
c x h h c + = then , 0 if let x
0 ) ( lim ) ( lim =

c f x f
c x c x
) ( ) ( lim ) ( lim c f c f x f
c x c x
= =

NOTE: Often it is easier to prove something is differentiable.
Notations for Derivatives
) ( ' x f
| | ) (x f
dx
d
| | ) (x f D
x
) ( ' x y
dx
dy
These two
assume that
y = f(x).
Other forms of the definition.
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

x
x f x x f
x f
x
A
A +
=
A
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
x w
x f w f
x f
x w

=

) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
MTH 251
Differential Calculus
Chapter 3 The Derivative

Section 3.3 Techniques of Differentiation
Copyright 2005 by Ron Wallace, all rights reserved.
The Derivative
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

| | ) ( ) ( ' : Notation Alternate x f
dx
d
x f =
Purpose of this section: Develop rules to determine f(x) more efficiently.
Rate of change of a function (f)
with respect to its variable (x).
Derivative of a constant.
| | = c
dx
d
0 lim
0
=

h
c c
h
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

Examples:
| | = 17
dx
d
0
| | = e
dx
d
| | = t
dx
d
0 0
Derivative of f(x) = x.
| | = x
dx
d
( )
1 lim
0
=
+

h
x h x
h
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

Derivative of positive integer powers of x.
| |=
n
x
dx
d
( )
=
+

h
x h x
n
n
h 0
lim
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

Examples:
| |=
2
x
dx
d
| |
=
- - - + +

h
x h h nx x
n n n
h
2 1
0
) (
lim
1 n
nx
| |=
7
x
dx
d
x 2
6
7x
Derivative of all integer powers of x.
| |=
n
x
dx
d
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

Examples:
| |=
0
x
dx
d
1 n
nx
| |=
3
x
dx
d
0
4
3

x
Note:
n=0 x
n
=1
n<0 easier to
prove later
=
(

17
1
x dx
d
| |
18 17
17

= x x
dx
d
FYI: This formula also works
with fractional exponents.
Derivative of a constant times a function.
| | = ) (x cf
dx
d
h
x cf h x cf
h
) ( ) (
lim
0
+

h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

Examples:
| |=
3
5x
dx
d
=
(

9
5
3
2
x
x
dx
d
=
(

10
6
x
dx
d
h
x f h x f
c
h
) ( ) (
lim
0
+
=

| | ) (x f
dx
d
c =
2
15x
5
5
3
x
5 4
3
8
3
2

=
(

x x
dx
d
Derivative of a sum or difference.
| | = ) ( ) ( x g x f
dx
d
| | | |
h
x g x f h x g h x f
h
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
lim
0
+ +

h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

Example:
| |= + + 2 7 5
2 3
x x x
dx
d
h
x g h x g
h
x f h x f
h h
) ( ) (
lim
) ( ) (
lim
0 0
+

+
=

| | | | ) ( ) ( x g
dx
d
x f
dx
d
=
7 10 3
2
+ x x
Derivatives of Derivatives
| | | | ) ( ' ' ) ( ) (
2
2
x f x f
dx
d
x f
dx
d
dx
d
= =
(

The Second Derivative

| | ) ( ) (
) (
x f x f
dx
d
n
n
n
=
The n
th
Derivative
| | | |
n
n
n
n
n
n
dx
y d
y
dx
d
x f
dx
d
x f y = = = ) ( then , ) ( If
One more example ...
). 3 ( ' find ,
2
1
) ( If f
x
x x f + =
2
2
1
1 ) ( '

= x x f
( )
18
17
9
1
2
1
1 3
2
1
1 ) 3 ( '
2
= - = =

f
Other Notation: ) (x f y =
| |
3
3
) ( ) 3 ( ' ) 3 ( '
=
=
= = =
x
x
dx
dy
x f
dx
d
y f
MTH 251
Differential Calculus
Chapter 3 The Derivative

Section 3.4 The Product and Quotient Rules
Copyright 2005 by Ron Wallace, all rights reserved.
The Product Rule
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

18 9 2 ) 6 )( 3 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
and , 6 ) ( , 3 2 ) ( Let
2
+ = + = =
+ = =
x x x x x g x f x h
x x g x x f
= ) ( ' x f
= ) ( ' x g
= ) ( ' x h
2
1
9 4 + x
) ( ' ) ( ' ) ( '
... that Notice
x g x f x h =
An Example
The Product Rule
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

| |
h
x g x f h x g h x f
x g x f
dx
d
h
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
lim ) ( ) (
0
+ +
=

h
x g x f x g h x f x g h x f h x g h x f
h
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
lim
0
+ + + + +
=

(

+
+
+
+ =

h
x f h x f
x g
h
x g h x g
h x f
h
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
) ( lim
0
) ( ' ) ( ) ( ' ) ( x f x g x g x f + =
The Product Rule
Shorthand notation
| | ' ' f g g f g f
dx
d
+ = -
The Product Rule
18 9 2 ) 6 )( 3 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
and , 6 ) ( , 3 2 ) ( Let
2
+ = + = =
+ = =
x x x x x g x f x h
x x g x x f
= ) ( ' x f
= ) ( ' x g
= ) ( ' x h
2
1
9 4 + x
) ( ' ) ( ) ( ) ( ' ) ( '
... that Notice
x g x f x g x f x h + =
What about the product of
three or more functions?
The Same Example
| | ' ' f g g f g f
dx
d
+ = -
The Quotient Rule
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

x x
x
x g
x f
x h
x x g x x f
3
2
3 2
) (
) (
) (
and , ) ( , 3 2 ) ( Let
=

= =
= =
= ) ( ' x f
= ) ( ' x g
= ) ( ' x h
2
1
2
3
x
) ( '
) ( '
) ( '
... that Notice
x g
x f
x h =
An Example
The Quotient Rule
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
lim
) (
) (
) (
) (
lim
) (
) (
0 0
h x g x hg
h x g x f x g h x f
h
x g
x f
h x g
h x f
x g
x f
dx
d
h h
+
+ +
=

+
+
=
(

) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
) (
lim
0
h x g x g
h
x g h x g
x f
h
x f h x f
x g
h
+
+

+
=

) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
lim
0
h x g x hg
h x g x f x g x f x g x f x g h x f
h
+
+ + +
=

| |
2
) (
) ( ' ) ( ) ( ' ) (
x g
x g x f x f x g
=
The Quotient Rule
Shorthand notation
2
' '
g
fg g f
g
f
dx
d
=
(

Lo-de-hi hi-de-lo square the bottom and away we go.

| | | |
2
g
g D f f D g
g
f
D
- -
=
(

The Quotient Rule

x x
x
x g
x f
x h
x x g x x f
3
2
3 2
) (
) (
) (
and , ) ( , 3 2 ) ( Let
=

= =
= =
= ) ( ' x f
= ) ( ' x g
= ) ( ' x h
2
1
2
3
x
| |
2
) (
) ( ' ) ( ) ( ) ( '
) ( '
... that Notice
x g
x g x f x g x f
x h

=
The Same Example
2
' '
g
fg g f
g
f
dx
d
=
(

The Product & Quotient Rules

h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

| | ' ' f g g f g f
dx
d
+ = -
2
' '
g
fg g f
g
f
dx
d
=
(

Negative Exponents
| |
n
x
dx
d
n

find integer, positive a is If
(

=
n
x dx
d 1
| |
n
n n
x
nx x
2
1
1 0

=
n
n
x
nx
2
1

=
1
=
n
nx
MTH 251
Differential Calculus
Chapter 3 The Derivative

Section 3.5 Derivatives of
Trigonometric Functions
Copyright 2005 by Ron Wallace, all rights reserved.
Reminder of two Limits
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

1
sin
lim
0
=

x
x
x
0
cos 1
lim
0
=

x
x
x
1
sin
lim
0
=

h
h
h
0
cos 1
lim
0
=

h
h
h
Derivative of the Sine Function
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

1
sin
lim
0
=

h
h
h
0
cos 1
lim
0
=

h
h
h
| |
h
x h x
x
dx
d
h
sin ) sin(
lim sin
0
+
=

h
x h x h x
h
sin sin cos cos sin
lim
0
+
=

(

=

h
h
x
h
h
x
h
sin
cos
1 cos
sin lim
0
x x x cos 1 cos 0 sin = - + - =
Derivative of the Cosine Function
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

1
sin
lim
0
=

h
h
h
0
cos 1
lim
0
=

h
h
h
| |
h
x h x
x
dx
d
h
cos ) cos(
lim cos
0
+
=

h
x h x h x
h
cos sin sin cos cos
lim
0

=

(

=

h
h
x
h
h
x
h
sin
sin
1 cos
cos lim
0
x x x sin 1 sin 0 cos = - - =
Summary: Sine & Cosine
| | x x
dx
d
cos sin = | | x x
dx
d
sin cos =
!
Derivative of the Tangent Function
| | = x
dx
d
tan
| | | |
x
x
dx
d
x x x
dx
d
2
cos
cos sin cos sin - -
=
x
x x
2
2 2
cos
sin cos +
= x
x
2
2
sec
cos
1
= =
(

x
x
dx
d
cos
sin
Quotient Rule!
2
' '
g
fg g f
g
f
dx
d
=
(

Summary: SIN, COS, & TAN

| | x x
dx
d
cos sin = | | x x
dx
d
sin cos =
| | x x
dx
d
2
sec tan =
Derivative of COT, SEC, & CSC
| | x x
dx
d
2
csc cot =
| | x x x
dx
d
tan sec sec =
| | x x x
dx
d
cot csc csc =
2
' '
g
fg g f
g
f
dx
d
=
(

Summary ...
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

| | x x x
dx
d
tan sec sec = | | x x x
dx
d
cot csc csc =
| | x x
dx
d
2
csc cot = | | x x
dx
d
2
sec tan =
| | x x
dx
d
sin cos = | | x x
dx
d
cos sin =
NOTE: All of these formulas assume that x is measured in radians.
MTH 251
Differential Calculus
Chapter 3 The Derivative

Section 3.6 The Chain Rule
Copyright 2005 by Ron Wallace, all rights reserved.
Composition of Functions
If f & g are functions where the range
of g is within the domain of f, then
is the composition function of f & g.
( ) )) ( ( ) ( x g f x g f =
Example:
= =
= =
)) ( ( ) )( ( then
, 1 2 ) ( and sin ) ( If
x g f x g f
x x g x x f
) 1 2 sin( x = =
= =
)) ( ( ) )( ( then
, 1 2 ) ( and sin ) ( If
x f g x f g
x x g x x f

1 sin 2 x
Recognizing Compositions
Find two functions f(x) & g(x), where
h(x) is the composition f(g(x)).
NOTE: Look for parentheses or the word of.
3
) 5 ( ) ( + = x x h
1 2 ) ( = x x h
5 ) (
) (
3
+ =
=
x x g
x x f
1 2 ) (
) (
=
=
x x g
x x f
The Derivative of a Composition
Given h(x) = f(g(x)), find h(x).
x
x f x x f
h
x f h x f
x f
x h
A
A +
=
+
=
A
) ( ) (
lim
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0 0
x
x g f x x g f
x h
x
A
A +
=
A
)) ( ( )) ( (
lim ) ( '
0
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) ( '
0
+
=

) ( ) (
giving ) ( Let
x g x x g u
x g u
A + = A
=
x
u
u
u f u u f
x
A
A
-
A
A +
=
A
) ( ) (
lim
0
x
x g x x g
u
u f u u f
x u
A
A +
-
A
A +
=
A A
) ( ) (
lim
) ( ) (
lim
0 0
) ( ' )) ( ( ' ) ( ' ) ( ' x g x g f x g u f = - =
The Chain Rule
| | ) ( ' )) ( ( ' )) ( ( x g x g f x g f
dx
d
- =
If you refer to f as the outer function and g
as the inner function, then the derivative
of the composition is the derivative of the
outer function evaluated at the inner
function times the derivative of the inner
function.
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
x g u x g f y - = = = then , ) ( and )) ( ( If Alternate Notation:
The Chain Rule: EXAMPLES
| |
3
) 5 ( + x
dx
d
2 2
) 5 ( 3 1 ) 5 ( 3 + = - + = x x
| | 1 2 x
dx
d
1 2
1
2
1 2 2
1

= -

=
x x
NOTE: Check this one by
expanding and differentiating.
| |
x
x
dx
d
2
1
: Reminder =
| | ) ( ' )) ( ( ' )) ( ( x g x g f x g f
dx
d
- =
The Chain Rule: EXAMPLES
| | ) 4 3 sin( x
dx
d
) 5 cos( 3 3 ) 4 3 cos( + = - = x x
( ) x x x x
2 2
sec tan 2 sec tan 2 = - =
| | x
dx
d
2
tan ( ) | |
2
tan x
dx
d
=
| | ) ( ' )) ( ( ' )) ( ( x g x g f x g f
dx
d
- =
The Chain Rule: EXAMPLES
( ) | | 4 3 cos
2
x
dx
d
( )- = ) 4 3 cos 2 x
| | ) ( ' )) ( ( ' )) ( ( x g x g f x g f
dx
d
- =
Note: This is a composition
of four functions.
4 3 ) (
) (
) cos( ) (
) (
2
=
=
=
=
x x i
x x h
x x g
x x f
( ) ( )
4 3
4 3 sin ) 4 3 cos 3

=
x
x x
3 ( ) ( )- 4 3 sin x
-
4 3 2
1
x
MTH 251
Differential Calculus
Chapter 3 The Derivative

Section 3.7 Related Rates
Copyright 2005 by Ron Wallace, all rights reserved.
Chain Rule: Another View
| | ) ( ' )) ( ( ' )) ( ( x g x g f x g f
dx
d
- =
If y = f(u) and u = g(x) then ...
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
- =
OR
So ...........
If y = f(x) relates two values and x is a function of
another variable t (i.e. x = g(t)), then as t changes
both x and y change.
That is ...
t y
dt
dy
wrt of change of rate the is
t x
dt
dx
wrt of change of rate the is
dt
dx
dx
dy
dt
dy
- =
This last equation shows how the two rates are related.
... and by the
chain rule ...
Example ...
A rectangular trough with a 2 foot by 6 foot bottom
is being filled with water with a hose at the rate of 4
cubit feet per minute. How fast is the water rising 5
minutes after the hose is turned on?
min
ft
4
3
2
6
h V - - = 6 2
rising
h
h V 12 =
| |
dt
dh
h
dh
d
dt
dV
- = 12
dt
dh
dt
dV
12 =
dt
dh
12 4 =
3
1
=
dt
dh
min
ft
i.e. 4 in/min
NOTE: The 5 was not used. Why?
Related Rates: Strategy
1. Draw and label a diagram with
known values and variables.
2. Find an equation that relates the
variables.
3. Differentiate both sides of the
equation with respect to time (t).
4. Substitute in all known values.
5. Solve for the unknown rate.
More examples ... see pages 222-223.
MTH 251
Differential Calculus
Chapter 3 The Derivative

Section 3.8 Local Linear Approximation;
Differentials
Copyright 2005 by Ron Wallace, all rights reserved.
Zooming In on a Function
2 2 ) (
2 3
+ + = x x x x f
x e [-3, 3]
y e [-2, 5]
(1,2)
Zooming In on a Function
2 2 ) (
2 3
+ + = x x x x f
x e [0, 2]
y e [-2, 5]
(1,2)
Zooming In on a Function
2 2 ) (
2 3
+ + = x x x x f
x e [0.5, 1.5]
y e [-2, 5]
(1,2)
Zooming In on a Function
2 2 ) (
2 3
+ + = x x x x f
x e [0.9, 1.1]
y e [-2, 5]
(1,2)
As you zoom in on a function,
the graph tends to get closer and closer to a line.
Therefore, a function can be approximated
near a point by the tangent line at that point.
Linear Approximation
f(x)
Tangent Line
0
x
( )
0
x f
) )( ( ' ) ( ) (
0 0 0
x x x f x f x f + ~
)) ( , ( : point
) ( ' : slope
0 0
0
x f x
x f
) )( ( ' ) (
0 0 0
x x x f x f y + =
Provided that x is near x
0
.
( ) dx x y +
( ) x x f A +
f(x)
Tangent Line:
) )( ( ' ) (
0 0 0
x x x f x f y + =
Differentials
x A
y A
) ( ) ( x f x x f y A + = A
x
x x A +
( ) ) (x y x f =
Along the function: Along the tangent line:
dx x +
dx
) ( ) ( x y dx x y dy + =
dy
x
y
x f
x
A
A
=
A 0
lim ) ( '
dx
dy
m =
line tangent the along used is function the along used is dx x A
Differentials
f(x)
Tangent Line:
x A
y A
dx x f dy y ) ( ' = ~ A
x
x x A +
( ) x x f A +
( ) ) (x y x f =
) )( ( ' ) (
0 0 0
x x x f x f y + =
( ) dx x y +
dx x +
dx
dy
dx
dy
x f = ) ( '
dy and dx are called differentials