Introduction To Metrology

Introduction To Metrology
Meaning of Metrology
Meaning of Metrology

Metrology is the science of measurement.

Metrology may be divided depending upon the quantity

to be measured like metrology of length, metrology of
time.

But for engineering purposes, it is restricted to

measurement of length and angles and other qualities
which are expressed in linear or angular terms.

In the broader sense it is not limited to length

measurement but is also concerned with industrial
inspection and its various techniques.


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Metrology is mainly concerned with!

"#$ %stablishing the units of measurements, ensuring
the uniformity of measurements.
"&$ 'eveloping methods of measurement.
"($ %rrors of measurement.
")$ *ccuracy of measuring instruments and their care.
"+$ Industrial inspection and its various techniques.
,egal Metrology
,egal Metrology
- Legal Metrology
,egal metrology is directed by a national organi.ation
which is called national service of ,egal metrology. It
includes a no. of international organi.ation whose
ultimate ob/ect is to maintain uniformity of measurement
throughout the world.
-
The activities of legal metrology are!
"#$ ontrol of measuring instruments.
"&$ Testing of prototype0models of measuring
instruments.
"($ %xamination of measuring instrument to verify its
conformity.
- In design, design engineer should not only
check his design from the point of view of the
strength or economical production, but he
should also keep in mind how the dimensions
specified can be checked or measured.
- 1igher productivity and accuracy can be
achieved by properly understood, introduced the
Metrology.
- 2ou can improve the measuring accuracy and
dimensional and geometrical accuracies of the
product.
Necessity and importance of
Necessity and importance of
Metrology
Metrology
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- 3roper gauges should be designed and used for
rapid and effective inspection.
- *lso automation and automatic control, which
are the modern trends for future developments,
are based on measurement. 'igital instruments
also we can used for inspection.
4uality control 5 Metrology as a means
4uality control 5 Metrology as a means


to achieve
to achieve

6henever parts must be inspected in large

numbers hundred percent inspection of each part
is not only slow and costly but in addition does
not eliminate all of the defective pieces.

Mass inspection tends to be careless, operators

become fatigue and inspection gauge become
worn or out of ad/ustment more frequently.

4uality control enables an inspector to sample

the part being produced in a mathematical
manner and to determine whether or not the
entire stream of production is acceptable.


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- The following steps must be taken while using quality
control techniques.
#$ 7ample the stream of product.
&$ Measure the desired dimension.
($ alculate the deviations of the dimensions from the
mean dimension.
)$ onstruct a control chart.
+$ 3lot succeeding data on the control chart.
8b/ectives of Metrology!
8b/ectives of Metrology!

The basic ob/ective of a measurement is to

The basic ob/ective of a measurement is to
provide the required accuracy at a minimum
provide the required accuracy at a minimum
cost.
cost.
#. #.
omplete evaluation
omplete evaluation
of newly developed
of newly developed
products.
products.
&. &.
'etermination of
'etermination of
3rocess apabilities
3rocess apabilities
.
.
(. (.
'etermination of the measuring
'etermination of the measuring
instrument
instrument
capabilities
capabilities
and ensure that they are quite
and ensure that they are quite
sufficient for their respective measurements.
sufficient for their respective measurements.
). ).
Minimising the
Minimising the
cost of inspection
cost of inspection
by effective
by effective
and efficient use of available facilities.
and efficient use of available facilities.


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+. +.
9educing the
9educing the
cost of re/ects
cost of re/ects
and rework
and rework
through application of statistical quality control
through application of statistical quality control
techniques.
techniques.
:. :.
To standardise
To standardise
the measuring methods.
the measuring methods.
;. ;.
To
To
maintain
maintain
the accuracies
the accuracies
of measurement.
of measurement.
<. <.
To
To
prepare design
prepare design
for all gauges and special
for all gauges and special
inspection fixtures.
inspection fixtures.
3rocess of measurement!
3rocess of measurement!
-
The sequence of operations necessary for
The sequence of operations necessary for
the execution of measurement is called
the execution of measurement is called
process of measurement.
process of measurement.
-
There are main three important elements
There are main three important elements
of measurement,
of measurement,
"#$
"#$
Measurand!
Measurand!
= Measurand is the physical quantity or
= Measurand is the physical quantity or
property like length, angle, diameter,
property like length, angle, diameter,
thickness etc. to be measured.
thickness etc. to be measured.


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"&$ 9eference! "&$ 9eference!
= It is the physical quantity or property to which = It is the physical quantity or property to which
quantitative comparisons are made. quantitative comparisons are made.
"($ omparator! "($ omparator!
= It is the means of comparing measuring measurand = It is the means of comparing measuring measurand
with some reference. with some reference.
-
7uppose a fitter has to measure the length of M.7. plate= 7uppose a fitter has to measure the length of M.7. plate=
he first lays his rule along the flat. 1e then carefully he first lays his rule along the flat. 1e then carefully
aligns the .ero end of his rule with one end of M.7. flat aligns the .ero end of his rule with one end of M.7. flat
and finally compares the length of M.7. flat with the and finally compares the length of M.7. flat with the
graduations on his rule by his eyes. In this example, the graduations on his rule by his eyes. In this example, the
length of M.7. flat is a length of M.7. flat is a measurand measurand, steel rule is the , steel rule is the
reference reference and eye can be considered as a and eye can be considered as a comparator comparator. .
Methods of Measurement!
Methods of Measurement!

The methods of measurement can be classified as! The methods of measurement can be classified as!
"#$ 'irect method! "#$ 'irect method!
-
This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of
the quantity to be measured is obtained directly without the the quantity to be measured is obtained directly without the
calculations. calculations.
-
>or example, measurements by scales, vernier callipers, >or example, measurements by scales, vernier callipers,
micrometers, bevel protector etc. micrometers, bevel protector etc.
-
This method is most widely used in production. This method is This method is most widely used in production. This method is
not very accurate because it depends on human /udgment. not very accurate because it depends on human /udgment.
"&$ Indirect method! "&$ Indirect method!
-
In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is
obtained by measuring other quantities which are functionally obtained by measuring other quantities which are functionally
related to required value. related to required value.
-
for example, angle measurement by sine bar, measurement of for example, angle measurement by sine bar, measurement of
shaft power by dynamometer etc. shaft power by dynamometer etc.
Measuring system!
Measuring system!

* measuring system is made of five elements! * measuring system is made of five elements!
These are! These are!
"#$ 7tandard "#$ 7tandard
"&$ 6ork piece "&$ 6ork piece
"($ Instrument "($ Instrument
")$ 3erson ")$ 3erson
"+$ %nvironment "+$ %nvironment
=
The most basic element of measurement is a standard without which no The most basic element of measurement is a standard without which no
measurement is possible. measurement is possible.
=
8nce the standard is chosen select a work piece on which measurement 8nce the standard is chosen select a work piece on which measurement
will be performed. will be performed.
=
Then select a instrument with the help of which measurement will be done. Then select a instrument with the help of which measurement will be done.
=
The measurement should be performed under standard environment. The measurement should be performed under standard environment.
=
*nd lastly there must be some person or mechanism to carry out the *nd lastly there must be some person or mechanism to carry out the
measurement. measurement.

*ccuracy!
*ccuracy!
-
*ccuracy is defined as the closeness of the
*ccuracy is defined as the closeness of the
measured value with true value.
measured value with true value.
89
89
-
*ccuracy is defined as the degree to which the
*ccuracy is defined as the degree to which the
measured value agrees with the true value.
measured value agrees with the true value.
-
3ractically it is very difficult to measure the true
3ractically it is very difficult to measure the true
value and therefore a set of observations is
value and therefore a set of observations is
made whose mean value is taken as the true
made whose mean value is taken as the true
value of the quantity measured.
value of the quantity measured.
3recision!
3recision!
-
* measure of how close repeated trials are to each * measure of how close repeated trials are to each
other. other.
89 89
-
The closeness of repeated measurements. The closeness of repeated measurements.
-
3recision is the repeatability of the measuring process. It 3recision is the repeatability of the measuring process. It
refers to the group of measurements for the same refers to the group of measurements for the same
characteristics taken under identical conditions. characteristics taken under identical conditions.
-
It indicated to what extent the identically performed It indicated to what extent the identically performed
measurements agree with each other. measurements agree with each other.
-
If the instrument is not precise it will give different results If the instrument is not precise it will give different results
for the same dimension when measured again and for the same dimension when measured again and
again. again.
'istinction between 3recision and
'istinction between 3recision and
*ccuracy
*ccuracy

>igure shows the difference between the concepts of >igure shows the difference between the concepts of
accuracy versus precision using a dartboard analogy that accuracy versus precision using a dartboard analogy that
shows four different scenarios that contrast the two terms. shows four different scenarios that contrast the two terms.

*! Three darts hit the target center and are very close *! Three darts hit the target center and are very close
together ? high accuracy and precision together ? high accuracy and precision

B! Three darts hit the target center but are not very close B! Three darts hit the target center but are not very close
together ? high accuracy, low precision together ? high accuracy, low precision

! Three darts do not hit the target center but are very ! Three darts do not hit the target center but are very
close together ? low accuracy, high precision close together ? low accuracy, high precision

'! Three darts do not hit the target center and are not close '! Three darts do not hit the target center and are not close
together ? low accuracy and precision together ? low accuracy and precision
>actors affecting the accuracy of
>actors affecting the accuracy of
the measuring system!
the measuring system!
-
The basic components of an accuracy evolution
The basic components of an accuracy evolution
are the five elements of a measuring system
are the five elements of a measuring system
such as!
such as!
#. >actors affecting the calibration
#. >actors affecting the calibration
standards.
standards.
&. >actors affecting the work piece.
&. >actors affecting the work piece.
(.
(.
>actors affecting the inherent
>actors affecting the inherent
characteristics of the instrument.
characteristics of the instrument.
). >actors affecting the person, who carries out
). >actors affecting the person, who carries out
the measurements.
the measurements.
+. >actors affecting the environment.
+. >actors affecting the environment.


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#. >actors affecting the standard. It may be affecting by! #. >actors affecting the standard. It may be affecting by!
= oefficient of thermal expansion, = oefficient of thermal expansion,
= calibration internal = calibration internal
= stability with time = stability with time
= elastic properties = elastic properties
= geometric compatibility = geometric compatibility
&. >actors affecting the work piece, these are &. >actors affecting the work piece, these are
= cleanliness, surface finish, surface defects etc. = cleanliness, surface finish, surface defects etc.
= elastic properties = elastic properties
= hidden properties = hidden properties
= arrangement of supporting workpiece. = arrangement of supporting workpiece.


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( .>actors affecting the inherent characteristics of instrument. ( .>actors affecting the inherent characteristics of instrument.
= 7cale error = 7cale error
= effect of friction, hysteresis, .ero drift = effect of friction, hysteresis, .ero drift
= calibration errors = calibration errors
= repeatability and readability = repeatability and readability
= constant geometry for both workpiece = constant geometry for both workpiece and standard and standard
). >actors affecting person! ). >actors affecting person!
= training skill = training skill
= ability to select the measuring instruments and standard = ability to select the measuring instruments and standard
= attitude towards personal accuracy achievements = attitude towards personal accuracy achievements
= sense of precision appreciation = sense of precision appreciation


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+. >actors affecting environment! +. >actors affecting environment!
= temperature, humidity etc. = temperature, humidity etc.
= clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision = clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision
= temperature equali.ation between standard, workpiece and = temperature equali.ation between standard, workpiece and
instrument, instrument,
= thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights, heating = thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights, heating
elements, sunlight and people. elements, sunlight and people.
The above analysis of five basic metrology elements can be composed The above analysis of five basic metrology elements can be composed
into the acronym. into the acronym.
76I3% for convenient reference 76I3% for convenient reference
6here, 7= standard 6here, 7= standard
6= 6orkpiece 6= 6orkpiece
I= Instrument I= Instrument
3= 3erson 3= 3erson
%= %nvironment %= %nvironment
7ensitivity!
7ensitivity!
-
7ensitivity may be defined as the rate of
7ensitivity may be defined as the rate of
displacement of the indicating device of an
displacement of the indicating device of an
instrument, with respect to the measured
instrument, with respect to the measured
quantity.
quantity.
-
7ensitivity of thermometer means that it is
7ensitivity of thermometer means that it is
the length of increase of the liquid per
the length of increase of the liquid per
degree rise in temperature. More sensitive
degree rise in temperature. More sensitive
means more noticeable expansion.
means more noticeable expansion.


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-
In other words, sensitivity of an instrument
In other words, sensitivity of an instrument
is the ratio of scale spacing to the scale
is the ratio of scale spacing to the scale
division value. >or example, if on a dial
division value. >or example, if on a dial
indicator, the scale spacing is # mm and
indicator, the scale spacing is # mm and
the scale division value is A.A# mm then
the scale division value is A.A# mm then
sensitivity is #AA. It is also called as
sensitivity is #AA. It is also called as
amplification factor or gearing ratio.
amplification factor or gearing ratio.
9eadability!
9eadability!
-
9eadability refers to the ease with which
9eadability refers to the ease with which
the readings of a measuring instrument
the readings of a measuring instrument
can be read.
can be read.
-
>ine and widely spaced graduation lines
>ine and widely spaced graduation lines
improve the readability.
improve the readability.
-
To make the micrometers more readable
To make the micrometers more readable
they are provided with venier scale or
they are provided with venier scale or
magnifying devices.
magnifying devices.
alibration!
alibration!
-
The calibration of any measuring
The calibration of any measuring
instrument is necessary to measure the
instrument is necessary to measure the
quantity in terms of standard unit.
quantity in terms of standard unit.
-
It is carried out by making ad/ustments
It is carried out by making ad/ustments
such that the read out device produces
such that the read out device produces
.ero output for .ero input.
.ero output for .ero input.


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The process whereby the magnitude of the
The process whereby the magnitude of the
output of a measuring instrument is related to
output of a measuring instrument is related to
the magnitude of the input force driving the
the magnitude of the input force driving the
instrument "i.e. *d/usting a weight scale to .ero
instrument "i.e. *d/usting a weight scale to .ero
when there is nothing on it$.
when there is nothing on it$.
-
The accuracy of the instrument depends on the
The accuracy of the instrument depends on the
calibration.
calibration.
-
If the output of the measuring instrument is linear
If the output of the measuring instrument is linear
and repeatable, it can be easily calibrated.
and repeatable, it can be easily calibrated.
Magnification!
Magnification!
-
Magnification is the process of enlarging
Magnification is the process of enlarging
something only in appearance, not in
something only in appearance, not in
physical si.e so that it is more readable.
physical si.e so that it is more readable.
(The stamp appears larger with the use of a
magnifying glass.)
9epeatability!
9epeatability!
-
It is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the It is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the
same results for the measurements for the same same results for the measurements for the same
quantity, when the measurements are carried out quantity, when the measurements are carried out
= by the same observer, = by the same observer,
= with the same instrument, = with the same instrument,
= under the same conditions, = under the same conditions,
= without any change in location, = without any change in location,
= without change in the method of measurement, = without change in the method of measurement,
= the measurements are carried out in short intervals of = the measurements are carried out in short intervals of
time. time.
-
It may be expressed in terms of dispersion of the results. It may be expressed in terms of dispersion of the results.
9eproducibility!
9eproducibility!
-
9eproducibility is the closeness of the
9eproducibility is the closeness of the
agreement between the results of
agreement between the results of
measurements of the same quantity, when
measurements of the same quantity, when
individual measurements are carried out!
individual measurements are carried out!
= by different observers,
= by different observers,
= by different methods,
= by different methods,
= using different instruments,
= using different instruments,
= under different conditions, locations, times etc.
= under different conditions, locations, times etc.
-
It may be expressed in terms of the dispersion of
It may be expressed in terms of the dispersion of
the results.
the results.
Backlash!
Backlash!
-
In
In
Mechanical %ngineering
Mechanical %ngineering
,
,
backlash
backlash
, is
, is
clearance between mating components,
clearance between mating components,
sometimes described as the amount of
sometimes described as the amount of
lost motion due to clearance or slackness
lost motion due to clearance or slackness
when movement is reversed and contact
when movement is reversed and contact
is re=established.
is re=established.
1ysteresis!
1ysteresis!
-
It is the difference between the indications
It is the difference between the indications
of a measuring instrument when the same
of a measuring instrument when the same
value of measured quantity is reached by
value of measured quantity is reached by
increasing or decreasing that quantity.
increasing or decreasing that quantity.
-
It is caused by friction, slack motion in the
It is caused by friction, slack motion in the
bearings and gears, elastic deformation,
bearings and gears, elastic deformation,
magnetic and thermal effects.
magnetic and thermal effects.
'rift!
'rift!
-
It is an undesirable gradual deviation of the
It is an undesirable gradual deviation of the
instrument output over a period of time that is
instrument output over a period of time that is
unrelated to changes in input operating
unrelated to changes in input operating
conditions or load.
conditions or load.
-
*n instrument is said to have no drift if is
*n instrument is said to have no drift if is
reproduces the same readings at different times
reproduces the same readings at different times
for same variation in measured quantity.
for same variation in measured quantity.
-
It is caused by wear and tear, high stress
It is caused by wear and tear, high stress
developed at some parts etc.
developed at some parts etc.
Threshold!
Threshold!
-
The min. value below which no output
The min. value below which no output
change can be detected when the input of
change can be detected when the input of
an instrument is increased gradually from
an instrument is increased gradually from
.ero is called the threshold of the
.ero is called the threshold of the
instrument.
instrument.
-
Threshold may be caused by backlash.
Threshold may be caused by backlash.
9esolution!
9esolution!
-
6hen the input is slowly increased from some
6hen the input is slowly increased from some
non=.ero value, it is observed that the output
non=.ero value, it is observed that the output
does not change at all until a certain increment
does not change at all until a certain increment
is exceededB this increment is called resolution.
is exceededB this increment is called resolution.
-
It is the min. change in measured variable which
It is the min. change in measured variable which
produces an effective response of the
produces an effective response of the
instrument.
instrument.
-
It may be expressed in units of measured
It may be expressed in units of measured
variable
variable
'ead .one and 'ead Time!
'ead .one and 'ead Time!
'ead Cone!
'ead Cone!
-
The largest change of input quantity for which
The largest change of input quantity for which
there is no change of output of the instrument is
there is no change of output of the instrument is
termed as dead .one.
termed as dead .one.
-
It may occur due to friction in the instrument
It may occur due to friction in the instrument
which does not allow the pointer to move till
which does not allow the pointer to move till
sufficient driving force is developed to overcome
sufficient driving force is developed to overcome
the friction loss.
the friction loss.
-
'ead .one caused by backlash and hysteresis
'ead .one caused by backlash and hysteresis
in the instrument.
in the instrument.


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'ead Time!
'ead Time!
-
The time required by a measurement
The time required by a measurement
system to begin to respond to a change in
system to begin to respond to a change in
the measurand is termed as dead time.
the measurand is termed as dead time.
-
It represents the time before the
It represents the time before the
instrument begins to respond after the
instrument begins to respond after the
measured quantity has been changed.
measured quantity has been changed.
%rrors in measurements!
%rrors in measurements!
-
It is never possible to measure the true value
It is never possible to measure the true value
of a dimension, there is always some error.
of a dimension, there is always some error.
-
The error in the measurement is the
The error in the measurement is the
difference between the measured value and
difference between the measured value and
the true value of measured dimensions.
the true value of measured dimensions.
-
The error in measurement may be expressed
The error in measurement may be expressed
either as on absolute error or as a relative
either as on absolute error or as a relative
error.
error.


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*bsolute error!
*bsolute error!
=
True absolute error! It is the algebraic difference
True absolute error! It is the algebraic difference
between the result of measurement and the
between the result of measurement and the
conventional true value of the quantity.
conventional true value of the quantity.
= *pparent absolute error! If the series of
= *pparent absolute error! If the series of
measurement are made then the algebraic
measurement are made then the algebraic
difference between one of the results of
difference between one of the results of
measurement and the arithmetical mean is
measurement and the arithmetical mean is
known as apparent absolute error.
known as apparent absolute error.


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9elative error!
9elative error!
=
It is the quotient of absolute error and the
It is the quotient of absolute error and the
true value or the arithmetical mean for
true value or the arithmetical mean for
series of measurement.
series of measurement.


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Types of errors!
Types of errors!


'uring measurement several types of error may
'uring measurement several types of error may
arise, these are!
arise, these are!
#. 7tatic errors which includes!
#. 7tatic errors which includes!
"a$ 9eading errors
"a$ 9eading errors
"b$ haracteristic errors
"b$ haracteristic errors
"c$ %nvironmental errors
"c$ %nvironmental errors
&. Instrumental loading errors.
&. Instrumental loading errors.
(. 'ynamic errors.
(. 'ynamic errors.


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#.7tatic errors!
#.7tatic errors!
= These errors result from the physical nature
= These errors result from the physical nature
of various components of measuring system.
of various components of measuring system.
There are three basic sources of static errors!
There are three basic sources of static errors!
"a$
"a$
9eading errors!
9eading errors!
= These errors occur due to carelessness of
= These errors occur due to carelessness of
operators. These do not have any direct
operators. These do not have any direct
relationship with other types of errors within
relationship with other types of errors within
the measuring system.
the measuring system.


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9eading errors include!
9eading errors include!

3arallax error!
3arallax error!
parallax errors arise on account of pointer and
parallax errors arise on account of pointer and
scale not being in same plane, we can eliminate
scale not being in same plane, we can eliminate
this error by having the pointer and scale in
this error by having the pointer and scale in
same plane.
same plane.

6rong scale reading and wrong recording of

6rong scale reading and wrong recording of
data.
data.

Inaccurate estimates of average reading.

Inaccurate estimates of average reading.

Incorrect conversion of units in calculations

Incorrect conversion of units in calculations. .


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"b$
"b$
haracteristics error!
haracteristics error!

It is defined as the deviation of the

It is defined as the deviation of the
output of the measuring system from the
output of the measuring system from the
theoretical predicated performance or
theoretical predicated performance or
from nominal performance specifications.
from nominal performance specifications.

,inearity errors, repeatability, hysteresis

,inearity errors, repeatability, hysteresis
are the characteristics errors if theoretical
are the characteristics errors if theoretical
output is straight line. alibration error is
output is straight line. alibration error is
also included in characteristics error.
also included in characteristics error.


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"c$
"c$
%nvironmental errors!
%nvironmental errors!

These error result from the effect of

These error result from the effect of
surrounding such as temperature,
surrounding such as temperature,
pressure, humidity etc. on measuring
pressure, humidity etc. on measuring
system.
system.

It can be reduced by controlling the

It can be reduced by controlling the
atmosphere according to the specific
atmosphere according to the specific
requirement.
requirement.


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&.
&.
Instrument loading error!
Instrument loading error!

,oading errors results from the change in

,oading errors results from the change in
measurand itself when being measured.
measurand itself when being measured.

Instrument loading error is the difference

Instrument loading error is the difference
between the value of measurand before and
between the value of measurand before and
after the measurement.
after the measurement.

>or example a soft or ductile component is

>or example a soft or ductile component is
sub/ected to deformation during measurement
sub/ected to deformation during measurement
due to the contact pressure of the instrument
due to the contact pressure of the instrument
and cause a loading error. The effect of this error
and cause a loading error. The effect of this error
is unavoidable.
is unavoidable.


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(.
(.
'ynamic errors!
'ynamic errors!

'ynamic error, also called measurement

'ynamic error, also called measurement
error, is the difference between the true
error, is the difference between the true
value of measuring quantity and value
value of measuring quantity and value
indicated by measurement system if no
indicated by measurement system if no
static error is assumed.
static error is assumed.

These errors can be broadly classified as!

These errors can be broadly classified as!


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"a$ 7ystematic or controllable errors!
"a$ 7ystematic or controllable errors!


= These errors are controllable in both their
= These errors are controllable in both their
magnitude and stress. These can also be
magnitude and stress. These can also be
determined and reduced. These are due to!
determined and reduced. These are due to!
"#$ alibrations errors!
"#$ alibrations errors!
= The actual length of standards such as
= The actual length of standards such as
scales will vary from nominal value by small
scales will vary from nominal value by small
amount. This will cause an error in
amount. This will cause an error in
measurement of constant magnitude.
measurement of constant magnitude.


ontinue@
ontinue@
"&$ *tmospheric error!
"&$ *tmospheric error!
= Dariation in atmospheric condition "i.e
= Dariation in atmospheric condition "i.e
temperature, pressure and moisture
temperature, pressure and moisture
content$ at the place of measurement from
content$ at the place of measurement from
that of internationally agreed standard
that of internationally agreed standard
values "&AE temp. and ;:A mm of 1g
values "&AE temp. and ;:A mm of 1g
pressure$ can give rise to error in
pressure$ can give rise to error in
measurand si.e of the component.
measurand si.e of the component.


ontinue@
ontinue@
"($ 7tylus pressure!
"($ 7tylus pressure!
= *nother common source of error is the
= *nother common source of error is the
pressure with which the workpiece is pressed
pressure with which the workpiece is pressed
while measuring. Though the pressure involved
while measuring. Though the pressure involved
is generally small but this is sufficient enough to
is generally small but this is sufficient enough to
cause appreciable deformation of both the stylus
cause appreciable deformation of both the stylus
and the workpiece.
and the workpiece.
=Dariations in force applied by the anvils of
=Dariations in force applied by the anvils of
micrometer on the work to be measured results
micrometer on the work to be measured results
in the difference in its readings. In this case error
in the difference in its readings. In this case error
is caused by the distortion of both micrometer
is caused by the distortion of both micrometer
frame and workpiece.
frame and workpiece.


ontinue@
ontinue@
")$ *voidable errors!
")$ *voidable errors!
= These errors may occur due to parallax,
= These errors may occur due to parallax,
non alignment of workpiece centers,
non alignment of workpiece centers,
improper location of measuring
improper location of measuring
instruments such as a thermometer in
instruments such as a thermometer in
sunlight while measuring temperature.
sunlight while measuring temperature.


ontinue@
ontinue@
"b$ 9andom errors!
"b$ 9andom errors!
= The random errors occur randomly and the
= The random errors occur randomly and the
specific causes of such errors cannot be
specific causes of such errors cannot be
determined. The likely sources of this type of
determined. The likely sources of this type of
error are!
error are!
-
7mall variations in the position of setting standard 7mall variations in the position of setting standard
and workpiece. and workpiece.
-
7light displacement of lever /oints in the measuring 7light displacement of lever /oints in the measuring
instrument. instrument.
-
>riction in measuring system. >riction in measuring system.
-
8perator errors in reading scale. 8perator errors in reading scale.
'ifference between 7ystematic and
'ifference between 7ystematic and
9andom errors!
9andom errors!
7ystematic error
7ystematic error
=
These errors are
These errors are
repetitive in nature
repetitive in nature
and are of constant F
and are of constant F
similar form.
similar form.
=
These errors result
These errors result
from improper
from improper
conditions.
conditions.

9andom error
9andom error
=
These are non
These are non
consistent. The
consistent. The
sources giving rise to
sources giving rise to
such errors are
such errors are
random.
random.
=
7uch errors are
7uch errors are
inherent in the
inherent in the
measuring system.
measuring system.


ontinue@
ontinue@
=
%xpect personal
%xpect personal
errors all other
errors all other
systematic errors can
systematic errors can
be controlled in
be controlled in
magnitude and sense.
magnitude and sense.
=
If properly analy.ed
If properly analy.ed
these can be
these can be
determined and
determined and
reduced or eliminated.
reduced or eliminated.
=
7pecific causes,
7pecific causes,
magnitudes and
magnitudes and
sense of these errors
sense of these errors
cannot be determined
cannot be determined
from the knowledge of
from the knowledge of
measuring system.
measuring system.
=
These errors cannot
These errors cannot
be eliminated, but the
be eliminated, but the
results obtained can
results obtained can
be corrected.
be corrected.


ontinue@
ontinue@
=
These errors includes These errors includes
calibration errors, calibration errors,
variation in atmosphere, variation in atmosphere,
pressure, misalignment pressure, misalignment
error etc. error etc.
=
These errors includes These errors includes
7mall variations in the 7mall variations in the
position of setting position of setting
standard and workpiece, standard and workpiece,
7light displacement of 7light displacement of
lever /oints in the lever /oints in the
measuring instrument, measuring instrument,
>riction in measuring >riction in measuring
system, 8perator errors system, 8perator errors
in reading scale. in reading scale.