Metabolism: broken down into two components:

(1) Catabolism: degrading or breaking down larger molecules

to smaller components and generates energy.
(2) Anabolism (biosynthesis): building larger molecules from
smaller ones. Anabolic reactions require energy and use
energy generated by catabolic reactions.


Enzymes
Act as biological catalysts to increase the rate of a
reaction

only act with one or a few specific substrates

enzymes are not altered by the chemical reaction
they catalyze


Chemical reactions require energy to break/form chemical
bonds
Enzymes do not add energy, they lower the energy of activation
and allow the reaction to proceed more rapidly
Environmental factors that affect the activity of
an enzyme:

Temperature, pH, and salt concentration

Functional protein Denatured protein
Allosteric Regulation

Regulates production of product (controls
metabolic activity)

Regulatory molecule binds to allosteric site of
enzyme
Feedback inhibition

A chemical pathway is shut down by build
up of a product that acts on allosteric site of
enzyme


Scheme of metabolism:

Key pathways
Glycolysis
Tricarboxcylic acid cycle
Fermentation

Pathways are catabolic and provide
Energy
Reducing power
Precursor metabolites

Role of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP):

it is chemical energy used by the cell to do work


Acetyl-CoA
Pyruvic acid
(or derivative)
Formation of
fermentation
end-products
2 Pyruvic acid
Glucose
G
L
Y
C
O
L
Y
S
I
S
Respiration Fermentation
KREBS
CYCLE
Electrons
Substrate phosphorylation
Uses chemical energy to add a phosphate ion to a molecule
of ADP
Occurs in glycolysis and Krebs cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation
Uses energy from proton motive force to add a phosphate
ion to ADP


Photophosphorylation
Uses radiant energy from sun to phosphorylate ADP to
ATP
Occurs in photosynthesis
Where ATP is generated:
Glycolysis (Embden-Myerhoff Pathway)

oxidizes one glucose to two pyruvate

Pathway generates
Two 3-C pyruvate molecules
Net gain of two ATP
Two molecules of NADH (reducing power)
Role of electron carriers:

Three different types of electron carriers
NAD
+
(Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide)
NADP
+
(Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate)
These listed above are all oxidized forms

Reduced forms represent reducing power (energy in bonds)
These listed below are all reduced forms
NADH
FADH
2

NADPH
Alternatives to Glycolysis
Yield fewer molecules of ATP than glycolysis

Two pathways:

Pentose phosphate pathway generates
net gain of two molecules of NADPH
one molecule of ATP

Entner-Doudoroff pathway generates
net gain of two molecules of NADPH
one molecule of ATP
Transition step:
links Glycolysis to Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle

Modifies 3-C pyruvate from glycolysis to
form acetyl-CoA
NAD
+
is reduced to NADH

This modification occurs twice for one
glucose

Pyruvic acid
Decarboxylation
Acetate
Coenzyme A
Acetyl-coenzyme A
(acetyl-CoA)
Respiration Fermentation
Transition step:
links Glycolysis to
Tricarboxylic Acid
Cycle

Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA)

uses pyruvate formed in glycolysis and pentose
phosphate pathway (remember pyruvate is modified to
form Acetyl-CoA)

cycle turns twice to complete oxidation of one glucose
molecule
Fermentation Respiration
Acetyl-CoA
Oxaloacetic acid
Malic acid
Fumaric acid
Succinic acid
Succinyl-CoA
-Ketoglutaric acid
Isocitric acid
KREBS
CYCLE
Citric acid
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
HOO
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
OOH
Tricarboxylic
Acid
Cycle
Substrate
phosphorylation
Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (also known as Krebs Cycle):

Completes the oxidation of glucose

Uses Acetyl-CoA (generated using pyruvate formed during
glycolysis)
Releases CO
2


Cycle turns once for each Acetyl-CoA
Two turns for each glucose molecule

For each glucose molecule, the cycle generates
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH
2


What happens to the molecules of
NADH and FADH
2
?

They are used in respiration through their
donation of electrons to the electron
transport chain for the generation of ATP
Respiration in prokaryotes
Respiration is either aerobic or anaerobic
Oxygen acts as acceptor in aerobic respiration
Alternate acceptors used in anaerobic respiration

Uses NADH and FADH
2
to generate ATP through the
process of oxidative phosphorylation:
uses electron transport chain
Generates proton motive force
uses ATP synthase
with proton motive force to synthesize ATP
FMN
NADH
from glycolysis,
Krebs cycle,
pentose phosphate
pathway, and
Entner-Doudoroff
pathway
FADH
2

from
Krebs cycle
Ubiquinone
Cyt c
2

Cyt b
Cyt c
Cyt c
Cyt a
Cyt a
3
ATP synthase

ATP synthase:

Harvest energy from proton motive force to
phosphorylate ADP to ATP

One NADH produces 3 molecules ATP

One FADH
2
produces 2 molecules of ATP
ATP from oxidative phosphorylation: (starting with 1 glucose
molecule)

Maximum theoretical yield = 34 ATP
From glycolysis
2 NADH 6 ATP
From conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coA (transition step)
2 NADH 6 ATP
From Krebs Cycle
6 NADH 18 ATP
2 FADH
2
4 ATP
ATP from cellular respiration: (starting with 1 glucose molecule)

Maximum theoretical yield = 38 ATP
From glycolysis
2 NADH 6 ATP
and 2 ATP (subs. phosphory.)
From conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coA (transition step)
2 NADH 6 ATP
From Krebs Cycle
6 NADH 18 ATP
2 FADH
2
4 ATP
and 2 ATP (sub. phosphory.)
Respiration
Anaerobic respiration is less efficient

Oxygen does not act as terminal electron
acceptor

Alternate acceptors are used: e.g. nitrate, sulfate,
carbonate

Fermentation
Used by organisms that cannot respire

is a partial oxidation of glucose

ATP generated only in glycolysis

Recycles NADH (the NAD
+
from fermentation feeds
back into glycolysis to form more NADH)

Fermentation pathways use pyruvate or derivative as
terminal electron acceptor

Pyruvic acid
Lactic acid Acetaldehyde
Ethanol
What are the terminal
electron acceptors used in:
-Lactic acid fermentation?
-Ethanol fermentation ?
Fermentation


Glucose
Pyruvic acid
Swiss cheese
Cheddar cheese,
yogurt, soy sauce
Wine, beer
Nail polish
remover,
rubbing
alcohol
Propionibacterium
Aspergillus
Lactobacillus
Streptococcus
Saccharomyces
Clostridium
Fermentation
examples
Photosynthesis
Use sunlight energy to power synthesis of
organic compounds from CO
2


Photosynthesis has two distinct stages

Light dependent reactions
Converts light energy to chemical energy

Light independent reactions
Uses energy from light reactions to
produce organic compounds
Photosynthetic organisms have light capturing pigments

Chlorophyll
plants, algae and cyanobacteria

Bacteriochlorophylls
purple and green photosynthetic bacteria

Accessory pigments: carotenoids and phycobilins
carotenoids found in eukaryotes and prokaryotes

phycobilins found only in cyanobacteria
Photosynthesis


Phototrophs: organisms that harvest the energy of
sunlight to power synthesis of organic compounds.

Chemoorganotrophs: organisms that obtain energy by
degrading organic compounds.
Chemolithotrophs
Chemolithotrophs: organisms that use reduced inorganic
chemicals as source of energy

Organisms fall into four groups
Hydrogen bacteria
Oxidize hydrogen gas
Sulfur bacteria
Oxidize hydrogen sulfide
Iron bacteria
Oxidize reduced iron
Nitrifying bacteria
Two groups
One oxidizes ammonia to nitrite
One oxidizes nitrite to nitrate