Compendium Review

Major Topic One: Nervous Function

Table of Contents

Part 1
• The Organization of the Nervous System
• The Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
• The Limbic System & Mental Functions
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• Nervous System Diseases
• Drug and Alcohol Effects

Part 2
• Sensory Receptors and Occurrence
• Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• Taste and Smell
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium
• Sensory Receptors and Occurrence
• Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• Taste and Smell
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium

“The cranial
nerves (I–XII)
and their
areas of
innervation”

Picture & Verbiage from

http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-46720
 Sensory Receptors and Occurrence
Exteroceptors and interoceptors are dendrites, known
as sensory receptors, that detect stimuli within the
PNS. Exteroceptors identify stimuli that is outside the
body such as smell or hearing, while interoceptors
identify stimuli inside the body such as blood pressure
rising. A receptor reacts to stimuli by sending nerve
impulses to the brain where the sensation is perceived.
The brain receives messages from nerves in different
areas depending on the origin of the impulse. Once a
sensory receptor has detected stimuli, they decode it
and then send the signal. This process is known as
integration. If a particular stimuli becomes constant,
sensory receptors may adapt and responses may
lessen. This is known as sensory adaptation.

Types of Sensory Receptors

Chemoreceptors: React to chemical substances such as taste, smell, and blood pH. Naked
dendrites known as nociceptors (pain receptor) are responsible for responding to tissue damage.
Photoreceptors: React to light, both rod cells and cone cells are found in our eyes.
Mechanoreceptors: React to pressures such as sound waves, motion and balance, and touch. The
sensory organ they are found in is the ear.
Pic from Human
Thermoreceptors: React to temperature changes (warmth and cold receptors). Biology Pg 275
• Sensory Receptors and Occurrence
• Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• Taste and Smell
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium

1. Impulse to spinal
cord by sensory nerve
2. Impulse from spinal
cord by motor nerve Muscle Spindle

Muscle Fiber

Quadriceps
Muscle

Tendon

Pic from Human

Biology Pg 276
 Proprioceptors & Cutaneous Receptors
• The bodies posture, balance, and reflexes are controlled by a type of mechanoreceptor (sensory
receptor) known as proprioceptors. They help inform the brain about the position of limbs from joints
and skeleton muscles.
• In the dermis layer of the skin are sensory receptors known as cutaneous receptors which allow
the skin to feel temperature, touch, pressure, and pain. The specific cutaneous receptors which are
responsible for touch are Meissner corpuscles, Krause end bulbs, and Merkel disks. The specific
cutaneous receptors which are responsible for pressure are Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini
endings.

When tissue is
damaged it releases
chemicals which are
recognized by
nociceptors (pain
receptors).

Pic from
Human Biology
Pg 277
• Sensory Receptors and Occurrence
• Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• Taste and Smell
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium

Types of Papillae
Fungiform papillae - slightly mushroom shaped if looked at in section. These are present
mostly at the apex (tip) of the tongue, as well as at the sides. Innervated by facial nerve.
Filiform papillae - these are thin, long papillae "V"-shaped cones that don't contain taste buds
but are the most numerous. These papillae are mechanical and not involved in gustation.
Characterized increased keratinization.
Foliate papillae - these are ridges and grooves towards the posterior part of the tongue found
on lateral margins. Innervated by facial nerve (anterior papillae) and glossopharyngeal nerve
(posterior papillae).
Circumvallate papillae - There are only about 3-14 of these papillae on most people, and they
are present at the back of the oral part of the tongue. They are arranged in a circular-shaped
row just in front of the sulcus terminals of the tongue. They are associated with ducts of Von
Ebner's glands. Innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve.
Papillae picture & verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taste_buds
Pic from Human Biology Pg 278

Taste
• Classified as chemoreceptors, taste and smell (olfactory) receptors react to molecules
in the air and food. Chemoreceptors attach to certain molecules and react differently.
Direct stimuli is detected by taste cells, whereas distant stimuli is detected by olfactory
cells.
• The little bumps on our tongues are known as papillae, and contain about 3,000 taste
buds (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami). When we eat or drink something, our taste
buds open and allow molecules to attach to receptor proteins. Sensory nerve fibers send
messages to the brain which processes the information in the gustatory cortex (taste)
and interpret it.
 Smell
• In the roof of the nasal cavity is the olfactory epithelium which contains millions of
olfactory cells. Similar to neurons, these cells end in olfactory cilia where receptor
proteins attach to odor molecules. Certain neurons in the olfactory bulb are aroused by
certain odor molecules.

Pic from
Human Biology
Pg 279
• Sensory Receptors and Occurrence
• Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• Taste and Smell
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium

Pic from Human Biology Pg 280

 Vision
The eyeball has 3 layers: the sclera (outer), the choroid (middle), and the retina (posterior
compartment).
1. Sclera: Supports eyeball, fibrous and white colored, contains cornea (clear collagen fibers) which
is responsible for refracting light. Behind the cornea is the pupil, a hole which admits light.
2. Choroid: responsible for absorbing any stray rays that have not been absorbed by
photoreceptors. Dark layer which is constant with the ciliary body (keeps lens in place, controls lens
shape, found behind iris) and iris (controls light entrance and pupil size). Attached to the ciliary body
is the lens which refracts light and helps with focus. The anterior compartment (in front of lens) is
filled with aqueous humor, a clear fluid; the posterior compartment is filled with vitreous humor, a
clear gel.

3. Retina: Located next to

posterior compartment, contains
rod cells and cone cells. Rod
cells only see black-and-white
and are sensitive to light rays.
Cone cells see color and
command bright light. Between
the retina and the posterior
compartment is the fovea
centralis, an area of compacted
cone cells which helps sharpen
vision. The optic nerve is formed
from sensory fibers off the retina
and takes impulses to the brain. Pic from Human
Biology Pg 280
Images are focused on the retina by assistance
from the cornea, lens, and humors. Visual
accommodation occurs when looking at an
object up close. The lens will round to help with
the focusing of the image on the retina. The
ciliary muscle is responsible for giving the lens
its shape. When looking at an object in the
distance, the lens will flatten through the
relaxation of the ciliary muscle.
Pic from Human Biology Pg 280
 Vision
Rod cells and cone cells are
photoreceptors in the eyes. Both rods
and cones consist of an inner and outer
segment connected to each other with
synaptic endings located at the bottom
of the inner segments below the
nuclei's. Rhodopsin is the deep purple
visual pigment in rod cells which is
structured of opsin (protein molecule)
and retinal (vitamin A derivative/light
sensitive). Depending on their pigment,
cone cells, which provide color vision,
come in three colors: blue, green, and
red. Although the pigments are
structured with the same protein
molecule and retinal as rod cones, the
three pigmented cone cells have
different structures to their protein
molecules which allows them to absorb
light differently.
Rod Cells are great for night time vision
and peripheral vision while cone cells
are utilized for color vision. Pic from Human
Biology Pg 282
 Vision
The retina has 3 layers: rod & cone cell layer, bipolar layer, and the ganglion cell layer.
1. Rod & Cone Cell Layer: Closest to choroid, sensitive to light, synapse with bipolar layer,
integration occurs as they transmit signals to next layer.
2. Bipolar Layer: Middle layer, each bipolar cell is utilized by several rod cells, they are bipolar
because they can be utilized by rod or cone cells (not both), integration occurs as they transmit
signals to next layer.
3. Ganglion Cell Layer: Send nerve impulses to visual cortex via optic nerve, more integration
occurs in visual cortex.

Pic from Human

Biology Pg 283
 Vision Pic from Human Biology Pg 284

The nerve impulse carried by the optic nerve are taken from the optic chiasma (X-shape of optic
nerves) through the right and left optic tracts to the thalamus where the nerve impulses are
delivered to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. The combined data allows us to see the entire
visual section.

Some abnormalities of the eyes may be color blindness

due to flawed cones or a deficiency in cones. People
who are nearsighted can see objects up close better
than objects at a distance due to elongated eyeballs,
whereas people who are farsighted can see objects at
a distance better than they can see objects up close
due to shortened eyeballs. Astigmatism can cause
blurry vision due to an unevenness in the lens or
cornea. This can be treated with LASIK surgery.
• Sensory Receptors and Occurrence
• Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• Taste and Smell
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium

Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear

 The outer ear is known as the pinna which houses the entrance, or auditory canal, to the
tympanic membrane. Sweat glands in the auditory canal secrete ear wax to protect against
foreign objects entering. The tympanic membrane, or ear drum, enters the middle of the ear
and stops at a bone with two small openings known as the oval and round windows. The
boney wall consists of three bones, the malleus (sticks to tympanic membrane), the incus ,
and the stapes (touches the oval window), all of which amplify sound waves. All three are
known as the ossicles. Inside the ear is the auditory tube which helps equalize pressure. The
inner ear is filled with fluid and contains the semicircular canal (contains equilibrium
mechanoreceptors), the vestibule (contains equilibrium mechanoreceptors), and the cochlea
(contains hearing mechanoreceptors).

Hearing
The sensory
receptors in the ear
contain hair cells with
very long microvilli
(stereocilia) that are
responsive to
stimulation.

Pic from Human Biology Pg 286

 Hearing
Sound waves travel through the auditory canal
where it vibrates the tympanic membrane and the
malleus transfers the pressure to the incus. It is
then transferred to the stapes where it is magnified
approximately 20 times. The pressure is then
passed to the fluid in the cochlea after the stapes
hits the oval windows membrane. Inside the
cochlear canal is the spiral organ, which consists of
hair cells and a gel substance known as the
tectorial membrane. The cochlea has two canals,
the vestibular and the tympanic. Once the pressure
is transferred from the oval windows membrane,
the pressure moves across the basilar membrane
to the tympanic canal.

Stereocilia on the hair

cells in the membrane
bend when the basilar
membrane vibrates.
The cochlear nerve is
where the impulses
begin and are
transmitted to the
brain as sound.
Pic from Human Biology Pg 287
• Sensory Receptors and Occurrence
• Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• Taste and Smell
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium

Balance Skills Developed

Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrioception

 Equilibrium
Equilibrium is a
physiological sense for
balance; it helps us with
standing and walking. There
are many factors which aid
in equilibrioception: the
vestibular nerve takes
impulses to the brain stem
and cerebellum,
proprioceptors (sensory
receptors) help inform the
brain about the position of
limbs from joints and
skeleton muscles,
semicircular canal hair cells
(mechanoreceptors) help
detect angular/rotational
movements in the head,
and utricle (membranous
sac in inner ear) and
saccule (membranous sac
in inner ear) hair cells help
detect horizontal/vertical
movements.
Pic from Human Biology Pg 290
 Works Cited
"cranial nerve." Online Art. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Mar. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-46720>.
"Ear." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 1 Apr 2008, 02:16 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1 Apr 2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ear&oldid=203198294>.
"Equilibrioception." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 24 Mar 2008, 03:55 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1
Apr 2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Equilibrioception&oldid=200458187>.
Mader, Sylvia S. Human Biology. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, 2008. Pages 273-293.
"Taste bud." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 1 Apr 2008, 00:21 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1 Apr 2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taste_bud&oldid=202429441>.