Earth

An oxygen-rich and protective atmosphere,

moderate temperatures, abundant water,
and a varied chemical composition allow
earth to support life,
SCE 3110 EARTH AND SPACE
Earth as a planet
The atmosphere
Clouds
Air pressure

The Earth and the other 8 planets and the Sun are
created at about the same time from a vast cloud
of dust and gas (nebula).

About 5 billion years ago, the nebula began to
gravitationally contract, began to rotate and
flattened.

Eventually, the Sun ignited (fusion) and the
newly formed planets began to differentiate -
heavier elements and chemical components sank
to the center and rocky material formed the crust.

The newly formed planets and moons released
gas forming early atmospheres.
The Origin of the Earth
Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

- About 4.54 billion years ago the Earth and the
other planets in the Solar System formed out
of the solar nebula - disk-shaped mass of
dust and gas left over from the formation of
the Sun

- Initially molten, the outer layer of the planet
Earth cooled to form a solid crust when water
began accumulating in the atmosphere.
Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

A cometary bombardment during the early
history of the planet played a role in the
formation of the oceans.

Later, asteroid impacts caused significant
changes to the surface environment.

Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

The Moon formed soon afterward, possibly as the
result of a Mars-sized object with about 10% of the
Earth's mass impacting the Earth in a glancing blow.

Some of this object's mass would have merged with
the Earth and a portion would have been ejected into
space, but enough material would have been sent
into orbit to form the Moon.

Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the
primordial atmosphere.


Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.


Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice and liquid
water delivered by asteroids and the larger proto-planets,
comets, and trans-Neptunian objects produced the
oceans

Beginning with almost no dry land, the total amount
of surface lying above the oceans has steadily
increased. During the past two billion years, for
example, the total size of the continents has doubled.

On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years,
the surface continually reshaped itself as continents
formed and broke up.


Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.



The continents migrated across the surface,
occasionally combining to form a supercontinent

Roughly 750 million years ago (mya), one of the
earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to
break apart.

The continents later recombined to form Pannotia,
600540 mya, then finally Pangaea, which broke
apart 180 mya.

Earth as Planet
3rd planet from the Sun (150 million kilometers)
takes 365.256 days travel around the Sun
23.9345 hours rotates a complete revolution.

largest of the terrestrial planets in the Solar System in
diameter, mass and density.

referred to as the World and Terra

About 71% of the surface is covered with salt-water
oceans (continent + island )
Earth as Planet
Rapid spin & molten nickel-iron core
creates magnetic field
along with atmosphere protect us from
harmful radiation
Meteors burn up in the atmosphere before
they can strike the surface.
Earth Statistics
Mass (kg) 5.976e+24
Mass (Earth = 1) 1.0000e+00
Equatorial radius (km) 6,378.14
Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 1.0000e+00
Mean density (gm/cm^3) 5.515
Mean distance from the Sun (km) 149,600,000
Mean distance from the Sun (Earth = 1) 1.0000
Rotational period (days) 0.99727
Rotational period (hours) 23.9345
Orbital period (days) 365.256
Mean orbital velocity (km/sec) 29.79
Orbital eccentricity 0.0167
Tilt of axis (degrees) 23.45
Orbital inclination (degrees) 0.000
Equatorial escape velocity (km/sec) 11.18
Equatorial surface gravity (m/sec^2) 9.78
Visual geometric albedo 0.37
Mean surface temperature 15C
Atmospheric pressure (bars) 1.013
Atmospheric composition
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Other

77%
21%
2%
Earth

An oxygen-rich and protective
atmosphere, moderate temperatures,
abundant water, and a varied chemical
composition allow earth to support life.
The Earth System I
The global interconnections of air,
water, rocks and life.

Earth system science is the study of the
whole earth as a system of many
interacting parts.
There are four reservoirs of material
on the earth.
These are:
(1) the geosphere
(2) the atmosphere,
(3) the hydrosphere
(4) the biosphere.
The Earth System II
The amount of matter that enters or
leaves the Earth system is so small
compared with the mass of the system
that the Earth can be considered a closed
system.

Because the amount of matter in a
closed system is finite, the mineral
resources on this planet are also finite.
The Earth System III
Earth: Open or Closed System?
Earth:
Matter does not come and go
Earth is a
Closed
System
to Matter
So
matter is
constantly
recycled on
Earth
Earth:
Earth constantly gains & loses energy
Earth is a
Open
System
to Energy
Heat
Sunlight
Earth: Open or Closed System?
Mostly Open to Energy
Mostly Closed to Matter
The whole earth is a closed system, but
all of its innumerable smaller parts are
open systems and both matter and energy
can be transferred between them. The
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and
geosphere are all open systems.
The Earth System IV
Sunlight
Evaporation from lakes,
streams and soils
Rain
Transpiration
Sea
Water from streams and groundwater flows to the sea
OPEN SUB-SYSTEM OF THE EARTH
The Earth System VI
Energy reaches
the Earth in
abundance in the
form of solar
radiation and
leaves the earth in
the form of
infrared radiation.
Biosphere
Short Wave Radiation

Long Wave Radiation
Sun
Atmosphere
Geosphere Hydrosphere
Earths Sphere
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Biosphere

The Earth is
composed of several
integrated parts that
interact with one
another: spheres
Lithosphere - All processes associated with the solid earth
Hydrosphere - All processes associated with water
Atmosphere - All processes associated with the gases that envelope the earth
Biosphere - All processes that involve living organisms
Atmosphere
A gaseous sphere
and it envelopes the
Earth
Consists of a mixture
of gases composed
primarily of nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and water
vapor.
Nitrogen 78.0842%
Oxygen 20.9463%
Argon 0.9342%
Carbon dioxide 0.0384%
Other 0.0020%
Atmosphere
Ozone at this
layer
4 major layers.
Atmosphere
Protects life on Earth by;
absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation,
warming the surface through heat
retention (greenhouse effect),
reducing temperature extremes
between day and night.
Atmosphere
Temperature
change with
latitude.
Structure of the Atmosphere
Thermosphere
Mesosphere
Ozone Maximum
Stratosphere
Troposphere
Temperature
Hydrosphere
All of the
water on
Earth

71% of the
earth is
covered by
water and
only 29% is
terra firma
Lithosphere
The Earth's solid
surface, often
called the crust of
the earth. It
includes
continental and
oceanic crust as
well as the
various layers of
the Earth's
interior.
Biosphere
All life on earth,
including man,
and all organisms.

The life zone on
our planet
distinguishes our
planet from the
others in the solar
system.
Earths Sphere
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Biosphere

Cryosphere
Anthrosphere
The Earth is
composed of several
integrated parts that
interact with one
another: spheres
Cryosphere
The portion of
the Earth's
surface where
water is in a solid
form

Snow or ice:
includes glaciers,
ice shelves,
snow, icebergs,
and arctic
climatology
Anthrosphere
Man and his
direct
ancestors,
hominids.

The human
population, its
buildings,dams,
and other
constructions.


Cloud
Condensation results in dew, fog or cloud
Water vapors need a surface to condense.
Eg grass, leaves, car screen = dew
Fog consequence of radiation; cooling or
moving air over a cold surface.

Cloud
How about in the air above ground?
Condensation nuclei tiny bits particulate
matters (dust, smoke & salt particles called
hygroscopic nuclei absorb water)
Without condensation nuclei humid atmos.
Cloud
Water vapor absorbed by these particles
become visible as clouds.
If clouds form below freezing temp.,
tiny ice crystals form.

Cloud
droplets or
frozen crystals
floating in the
atmosphere
provide visible
indication.
Condensation & Cloud Formation (4)
Condensation I
When air becomes saturated with water, either
water condenses or ice crystals precipitate
depending on the temperature.
Condensed cloud droplets are so small that air
turbulence keeps them suspended. However as
their density increases they start to coalesce
(combine) and fall. As they fall these further
coalesce with droplets they bump into and
eventually a rain drop is formed. The formation
of sleet (frozen rain), and in particular snow, is
more complex.

Condensation & Cloud Formation (4)
Condensation II


Process II - supercooled
water droplets
evaporate, & ice
crystals grow by
incorporating newly
formed water vapour
Process I
Condensation & Cloud Formation
When precipitation occurs (rain)?
Cloud consisting millions of tiny water
droplets (20 micrometer) suspended in
air.
Human hair diameter 75 micrometer
Rain drop diameter 2000 micrometer
# million times the vol. of cloud droplet.
Precipitation needs additional water
droplets and collision.

Condensation & Cloud Formation (5)
Clouds 1
Clouds form when air rises and becomes saturated in
response to adiabatic cooling.
There are 4 reasons for the upward movement of air:
1. Density lifting - warm, low density air rises
convectively displacing cooler dense air.
2. Frontal Lifting - occurs when 2 flowing air
3. Orographic Lifting - occurs when flowing air is
forced upward as a resulting of a sloping
terrain (west coast of Tasmania)
4. Convergence Lifting - occurs when flowing air
masses converge & are forced upwards.
B & C Frontal Lifting - boundaries
b/w air masses of different temp. &
humidity are called fronts. May get
warm fronts or cold fronts (10 -150
kms in width)
Clouds are visible aggregations of minute water
droplets, tiny ice crystals or both.

Since clouds form by condensation of water
vapour, all common clouds are phenomena of the
troposphere.
Condensation & Cloud Formation (5)
Clouds III



Clouds are classified on the basis of shape, appearance
and height into 3 families: cumulus, stratus, and cirrus.
Cumulus clouds are
puffy, globular,
individual clouds that
form when hot, humid
air rises convectively.
Cumulus Cumulonimus
Altocumulus
Condensation & Cloud Formation (7)
Clouds V



Condensation & Cloud Formation (8)
Clouds VI



Cirrostratus
Stratocumulus
Stratus
Altostratus
Stratus Clouds are
sheets of cloud that
form at altitudes
from 2-15 kms and
generally cover the
entire sky. They
form as a
consequence of
frontal lifting.
Nimbostratus
Condensation & Cloud Formation (9)
Clouds VII



Cirrus Clouds are
the highest of clouds
in the troposphere.
Looking like fine
wispy filaments,
they only form
above 6kms and are
composed entirely
of ice crystals.
Types of Cloud
2 categories: layered and convective.
stratus clouds or stratiform means "layer"
and cumulus clouds or cumuliform means
"piled up.
High clouds (Family A)
Cirrocumulus
Cirrus cloud
Cirrostratus
Middle clouds (Family B)
Altostratus
Altocumulus

Classification
Cloud
Low clouds (Family C)
include the stratus
which contact the
ground called fog.
Cumulus
Cumulus humilis
Cumulus mediocris
Stratocumulus
Nimbostratus
Stratus
Vertical clouds (Family D)
Cumulonimbus
(associated with heavy
precipitation and
thunderstorms)
Cumulonimbus calvus
Cumulonimbus incus
Cumulonimbus
Cumulus
Cumulus congestus
Pyrocumulus
Classification
Air Pressure
Gas molecules bombard
randomly against
surfaces in all directions;
As air density increases,
the number of strikes
per unit time & area also
increases thus exerted
force (higher pressure).
As altitude increases,
the number of molecules
decreases, meaning a
decrease in air pressure.
Composition & Structure of the
Atmosphere (20)
Air Pressure III
Air pressure decreases with
altitude because air is
compressible and behaves
like a pile of springs.
(A) The springs near the
base are compressed by the
weight of the springs
above.
(B) Air is similarly
compressed by the weight
of the air above.

Air Pressure
Atmosphere extends more than 15
miles (24 km) up;
one half of the air molecules in the
atmosphere are contained within the
first 18,000 feet (5.6 km).
Pressure produced by weight of air
confined in the atmosphere.
Composition & Structure of the
Atmosphere (19)
Air Pressure II
If a helium balloon 1m in
diameter is released at sea
level, it expands as it floats
upward because of the pressure
decrease.
This emphasised the
compressible nature of gases
(including atmospheric gases)

Air Pressure
Air pressure is measured with a
device called a barometer.
At sea level 1kg/cm2
1013.2 millibars
29.92 inches of mercury
Producing changes to weather
Variations between places;
generates winds & bring
changes in temperature &
humidity.

Reference

Skinner et. al., 1999 The Blue
Planet (2nd Edition), Chapter 12.