Durability

Definition of durability and reliability, warrantee

Examples of durability structural failure, malfunction, rust
Bathtub curve
Durability evaluation: lab test, proving ground, fleet, analysis
Proving ground correlation
Structural fatigue failure hair clip example
S-N curve
S-N curve for metals
Load histogram/load signal
Damage calculation
Suspension load estimation
Suspension parameters
Road surfaces
Assignment
System design
Reliability & Durability
Reliability: System is unreliable when it malfunctions or
fails unexpectedly, examples of unreliability:
A new car will not start after 3 months of purchase
Window does not roll down after 6 months
Power lock does not work within a month
Rattling noise within 2 months
Durability: System is durable when it performs or does
not fail beyond its expected life, examples of durability:
A car does not need any repair during warranty period of 3 years
A car is still on the road after 10 years
A car is still on the road after 200,000 km

Types of Failures
Early or Infant Mortality Failures: These are mostly due
to manufacturing defects and has a decreasing failure
rate. Examples: Electronic modules not working, window
does not open due to interference fit, etc.
Durability Failures: These are mostly due to wear and
tear or fatigue failures and has an increasing failure rate.
Examples: Wearing of brake pads, wearing of shock
absorbers, tire wear, body rust, muffler rust damage, etc.
Random Failures: These are random in nature and occur
due to accidents abuse or misuse and has a constant
failure rate.

Typical Failure Rate During Product
Life Cycle
The rate at which failures occur is typically characterized by the bathtub
curve
The three regions of the curve indicate distinct failure modes
Time in Service
Infant Mortality
(DFR)
Random Failure (CFR) Wear out Failure
(IFR)
Useful Life
Constant failure rate (CFR) indicates
failures that happen at random.
They are unrelated to wear and may
happen due to accidents, abuse or
misuse.
Decreasing failure
rate (DFR) indicates
manufacturing defects
resulting in early
failures
Increasing failure rate
(IFR) show the effect
of accumulated
damage (metal fatigue,
cumulative
environmental
exposure, etc.)
Failure
Rate
Ideal Failure Rate in Vehicle Life Cycle
Time in Service J#1
Product Development
Testing (DFR)
Random Failure (CFR) Wear out Failure
(IFR)
Trouble-Free Life Target
(10 yr/150K Miles for 90% of customers)
Random failures cannot be avoided.
(They are unrelated to time-in-service)
- Minor accidents
- Severe road hazards
- Misuse or abuse
Failure modes
discovered and fixed
during product testing

Some extreme-duty
customers (<10%)
may experience early
wear out
Majority of wear out
failures (>>90%) occur
outside the 10yr/150K
mile target
Failure
Rate
The intent of PD is that all potential failures modes that we design against are discovered
and fixed before Job #1.
We accept that we cannot possibly design for every single customer. Therefore we define
the usage spectrum corresponding to 90% of the customers as our target for wear out
failures.
Potential Failure Modes and Their Relationship to
Strength and Fatigue Requirements
Time in Service
Failure
Rate
J#1
Random Failure (CFR)
Wear out Failure
(IFR)
Trouble-Free Life Target
(10 yr/150K Miles)
Design for Strength
Failure may be unavoidable. If
vehicle fails, it must fail safely (within
reasonable limits)

Low-occurrence loads
Robust Testing
Front-load the
discovery of failure
modes using CAE and
laboratory tests
Design for Fatigue
Identify and design against all
potential failure modes related to
repeated duty cycles

Common-occurrence loads
The Fatigue Requirements cover the usage spectrum of 90% of the customers
The Strength Requirements cover extreme duty customers as well as random events.
Failures are possible, and the intent is to develop fail-safe designs.
During product development, laboratory tests at component and system levels are employed as
early as possible to front-load the discovery of strength and fatigue failure modes (as opposed
vehicle tests in the proving ground)
Product Development
Testing (DFR)
Methods of Durability Testing
FE & fatigue analysis of complete body/chassis
system subject to duty cycle
Lab testing of the vehicle
Vehicle testing on the proving ground
Vehicle fleet testing on public roads
Laboratory Testing
Proving Ground Testing
Rough Road Track
Hilly Terrain for Powertrain
Dynamic
Loads
Salt
Bath
Average length of the circuit: 5 - 6 miles
Average speed: 30-55 mph
Proving Ground Miles: 10,000
Equivalent Miles: 150,000

Proving Ground Description
Rough Road Track for Structural Durability includes: road with pot
holes, speed bumps, curb, cobblestone, twist ditch, etc.
Powertrain Durability Track includes: 1% - 5% uphill and downhill
roads
Dynamic Loads Track includes: Roads with ability produce 0.8
1.0G lateral acceleration
Salt Bath Track includes: Muddy terrain and salt spraying facility
Description of Fatigue Failure
Force
Force
Fixed Fixed
,F
,F
L
o
a
d

Cycles, N
F
N
0
S-N Curve for Metals
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
(
E
n
g
g
.
)

S
t
r
e
s
s

R
a
n
g
e
,

K
S
I

Fatigue Life, Cycles
S-N Curve for SAE 1010 Steel
Notes of Fatigue Life


Endurance Limit (EL) is the same as Fatigue Limit (FL). EL is more
commonly used in U.K. and for Steel; FL is used in the U.S. for all materials.


Rule of Thumb for Fatigue Design: - 5 to -10% Stress => +100% Life

To increase Fatigue Life, increase the strength of the part without inflicting
surface damage. Fatigue begins at stress concentrators which are most
frequently located on surfaces

Low cycle Life is dominated by Ductility and Plastic Behavior;
High cycle Life is dominated by Strength and Elastic Behavior.
The crossover point on the S-N Curve is called Transition Fatigue Life.
The higher the hardness of the steel (lower ductility),
the lower the Transition Fatigue Life.




For steel structures, a fatigue crack needs to be 1 mm long before it
propagates; scratches and nicks dont grow.

To resist Crack Nucleation (Initiation), make the part stronger;
To resist Crack Propagation, select a more ductile material.












Physics Method Crack Size Surface Finish
Influence
Crack Nucleation Stress-Life < 0.1 mm Strong

Microcrack Growth Strain-Life 0.1 1 mm Moderate
Macrocrack Growth Crack Propagation >1 mm None
Notes on Fatigue Life
Stress Cycle
C
y
c
l
i
c

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Time

t
max tensile stress

c
max compressive stress

m
= (
t
+
c
)/2

m
= 0 if
t
=
c

m
< 0 if
t
<
c

m
> 0 if
t
>
c

m
Notes on Fatigue Life
Variability in Loading is much more critical for accuracy in
estimating Fatigue Life, than variability in Material Strength.

Mean Stress Effect - Tensile Mean Stresses reduce Fatigue Life or
decrease the allowable Stress Range.
Compressive Mean Stresses increase Fatigue Life or increase the
allowable Stress Range.


If the Fatigue Life corresponding to Zero Mean Stress is N
0


When Mean Stress/Ultimate Strength = 0.2, then N = 0.1 N
0

When Mean Stress/Ultimate Strength = 0.4, then N = 0.05 N
0

When Mean Stress/Ultimate Strength = -0.2, then N = 10 N
0

When Mean Stress/Ultimate Strength = -0.4, then N = 100 N
0


Actual Service Loads & Histogram
C
y
c
l
i
c

L
o
a
d

Time
L
o
a
d

Cycles
Load Histogram
Fatigue Damage Calculation
Cycles
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
S
5
S
6
N
1
N
2
N
3
N
4
N
5
N
6
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
S
t
r
e
s
s

Cycles
S
t
r
e
s
s

Stress Histogram
S-N Curve for Metal
Damage D = N(
i
)/N
i

And D < 1
1
6
Process to Evaluate Structural Durability
Road Surface,
Speed and
Number of Passes
Suspension Load
Histogram for
Components
Component
Stress
Histogram
Damage Calculation
from Material
S-N Curve
Durability Road Surface
Severe pothole 1 pot hole per how many miles (N)
Severe bump - 1 bump per how many miles (N)
Cobble stone - 1 cobblestone per how many miles (N)
Etc.
Pothole dimensions, speed, no. of occurrence
Bump dimensions, speed, no. of occurrence
cobblestone dimensions, speed, no. of occurrence
No. of Occurrences = Warranty mileage/N
Suspension Load Calculation
Rebound
Low speed
damping
(N.sec/m)
Rebound
High
speed
damping
(N.sec/m
Cut - Off -
Speed
(Rebound)
m/s
Jounce
Low speed
damping
(N.sec/m
Jounce
High
speed
damping
(N.sec/m
Cut - Off -
Speed
(Jounce)
m/s
1000 2000 1.5 750 2000 1
Sprung
corner wt 400 kg
Unsprung
weight 40 kg
Road
Profile
Rim Stiffness(N/mm) 2000
Rim contact (mm) 75
Tire
Stiffness 200 N/mm
Rebound
Bumper
Rate
(N/mm)
Rebound
Wheel
Rate
(N/mm)
Rebound
Clearance
(mm)
Jounce
Wheel
Rate
(N/mm)
Jounce
Bumper
Rate
(N/mm)
Jounce
Clearance
(mm)
Tire lift-off 21.582 mm 200 50 100 45 200 80
T
i
r
e

L
o
a
d
Tire Compression
Tire
Lift-off
Rim
Contact W
h
l

L
o
a
d
Whl Deflection
S
h
o
c
k

L
o
a
d
Whl speed
Jounce/Rebound Clearance
Tire
Fender
Jounce
Clearance
Small Car 50 mm
Large Car 90 mm
Big SUV 120mm
Truck 150mm
Suspension Loads
Tire Stiffness / Size
Vehicle Weight / Weight Distribution
Jounce / Rebound Travel (J/R Bumper Height)
Jounce / Rebound Bumper Properties
Shock-Absorber Parameters
Unsprung (Wheel, Spindle, Axle, Suspension) Mass
Spring Stiffness


Parameters that affect Dynamic Loads*
Stress Calculation
Shock Absorber Tube Cross-section with area A
Shock absorber load from suspension load calculation P
max

Peak stress = P
max
/A
Fatigue Damage Calculation
Cycles
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
S
5
S
6
N
1
N
2
N
3
N
4
N
5
N
6
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
S
t
r
e
s
s

Cycles
S
t
r
e
s
s

Stress Histogram
S-N Curve for Metal
Damage D = N(
i
)/N
i

And D < 1
1
6
Procedure
Design durability road event, geometry, speed and number of
occurrences
Calculate maximum shock absorber load from spreadsheet for
each road profile
Construct load and stress histogram
Assume material S-N curve from internet
Calculate damage
If damage is > 100%, use different material or area