1

TECHNIQUES OF DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:

Superposition Principle
Thevenins Theorem
Nortons Theorem
Source Transformation
Maximum Power Transfer
2
Applies only for LINEAR CIRCUIT
Circuit containing linear
elements, linear dependent and
independent sources
A LINEAR relationship
between voltage and
current
What do we mean by a linear relationship?
3
What do we mean by a linear relationship?
When the relationship fulfilled 2 properties:
Homogeneity (scaling)
Additivity
f(x) = y f(kx) = ky = kf(x)
f(x) = y f(x
1
+ x
2
) = f(x
1
) + f(x
2
) = y
1
+ y
2
4
Superposition Principle: The voltage across an element ( or the
current through an element) of a linear circuit containing more than
one independent source, is the algebraic sum the voltage across
that element (or the current through that element) due to each
independent source acting alone.
All other independent sources are KILLED
voltage sources are shorted
current sources are opened
Dependent sources CANNOT be killed !
5
Superposition Principle: The voltage across an element ( or the
current through an element) of a linear circuit containing more than
one independent source, is the algebraic sum the voltage across
that element (or the current through that element) due to each
independent source acting alone.
6
Superposition Principle: The voltage across an element ( or the
current through an element) of a linear circuit containing more than
one independent source, is the algebraic sum the voltage across
that element (or the current through that element) due to each
independent source acting alone.
may involve MORE work
cannot be applied to power calculation find i or v
first (using superposition) before calculating power !
most suitably used when involved with sources of different
properties or types, e.g. different frequencies, mixture of
DC and AC, etc.
7
Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor
Linear two-
terminal
circuit
Load
+

V


+

V


Load
V
Th
R
Th
V
Th
= ?

R
Th
= ?

In 1883, M.L. Thevenin proposed a theorem .
I
I
8
Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor
To determine V
Th

Linear two-
terminal
circuit

Load
V
Th

R
Th

Load
=
9
Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor
To determine V
Th

Linear two-
terminal
circuit

Load
V
Th

R
Th

open circuit voltage = V
oc

+



= V
Th

Load
10
Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor
To determine V
Th

Linear two-
terminal
circuit

V
Th

R
Th

open circuit voltage = V
oc

+



= V
Th

open circuit voltage = V
oc

+



Load
11
Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor
To determine V
Th

Linear two-
terminal
circuit

V
Th

R
Th

open circuit voltage = V
oc

+



= V
Th

open circuit voltage = V
oc

+



V
Th
= V
oc
= Open circuit voltage
= V
Th
(Since the circuit is equivalent)
12
Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor
To determine R
Th

Case 1 Network with NO dependent sources
Kill all the independent sources
Find the equivalent R looking between the terminals
Linear
circuit
independent
sources
killed

R
in
= R
Th

13
Thevenins Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor
To determine R
Th

Case 2 Network with dependent sources
Kill all the independent sources - dependent sources
stay as they are
Introduce a voltage (or current) source.
Linear
Circuit
ONLY
dependent
sources
killed

+
-
v
o

i
o

R
Th
is calculated as:
o
o
Th
i
v
R =
14
Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor
43 years later, E.L. Norton proposed a similar theorem. .
I
N
= ?

R
N
= ?

Linear two-
terminal
circuit
Load
+

V


I
+

V


I
Load
I
N
R
N

15
Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor
To determine I
N

Linear
circuit
I
N

I
N

R
N

16
Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor
I
N
= Short circuit current
To determine I
N

I
N

R
N

Linear
circuit
Short circuit current = I
N

17
Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor
To determine I
N

I
N
= Short circuit current
I
N

R
N

Linear
circuit
Short circuit current = I
N

I
N
= I
sc
= Short circuit current
18
Nortons Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor
To determine R
N

SIMILAR METHOD AS HOW TO OBTAIN R
Th
R
N
= R
Th
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Relationship between Nortons and Thevenins equivalents
Linear two-
terminal
circuit

b
a
I
N

R
N

b
a
V
Th

R
Th

b
a
OR
20
Relationship between Nortons and Thevenins equivalents
I
N

R
N

b
a
V
Th

R
Th

b
a
Since both circuits are equivalent, v
oc
must
be the same
N
Th
Th N N N Th
I
V
R R R I V = = =
sc
oc
i
v
=
N N oc
R I v =
+



Th oc
V v =
+



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Source Transformation: A tool used to simplify circuit; a process of
replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor by a current source
in parallel with a resistor or vice versa
v
s

R
a
b
i
s

R
a
b
If the circuit is equivalent at terminal a-b, their open-circuit and
short-circuit characteristics are similar
v
oc
= v
s

i
sc
= v
s
/R
v
oc
= i
s
R
i
sc
= i
s

22
Source Transformation: A tool used to simplify circuit; a process of
replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor by a current source
in parallel with a resistor or vice versa
v
s

R
a
b
i
s

R
a
b
v
oc
= v
s

i
sc
= v
s
/R
v
oc
= i
s
R
i
sc
= i
s

R i v or
R
v
i
s s
s
s
= =
23
Maximum Power Transfer
Linear circuit
R
L
What would be the value of R
L
for
power delivered to it become
MAXIMUM?
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Maximum Power Transfer
Linear circuit
R
L
What would be the value of R
L
for
power delivered to it become
MAXIMUM?
V
Th
R
Th
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
L
2
L Th
L
Th
L
R
R R
R
V
P
L
2
L Th
Th
R
R R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
R
L

p
Maximum Power Transfer
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
L
2
L Th
L
Th
L
R
R R
R
V
P
L
2
L Th
Th
R
R R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
Rl=linspace(1,60,500);
Vth=10;
Rth=12;
p=((Vth./(Rl+Rth)).^2).*Rl;

plot(Rl,p,'r');
grid;

Maximum power
R
L
= 12 O
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Maximum Power Transfer
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
L
2
L Th
L
Th
L
R
R R
R
V
P
L
2
L Th
Th
R
R R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
Mathematically, we evaluate R
L
when
0
dR
dP
L
L
=
0
) R R (
V
R
) R R (
V 2
dR
dP
2
L Th
2
Th
L
3
L Th
2
Th
L
L
=
+
+
+

=
( )
0
) R R (
R R R 2 V
dR
dP
3
L Th
L Th L
2
Th
L
L
=
+
+ +
= Th L
R R =
27
Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems
Find Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b
28
Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems
29
Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems
0
R9
2
-
+
+
-
E2
E
R8
2
R7
6
R6
4
I3
1Aac
TRAN =
0
30
Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems
0
R9
2
-
+
+
-
E2
E
R8
2
R7
6
R6
4
I3
1Aac
TRAN =
0
31
Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems
0
R9
2
-
+
+
-
E2
E
R8
2
R7
6
R6
4
I3
1Aac
TRAN =
0
I4
1Aac
TRAN =
1
32
Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems
R8
2
6.000V
1.333V
R6
4
4.000V
R7
6
I3
1Aac
TRAN =
0
0
R9
2
-
+
+
-
E2
E
I4
1Aac
TRAN =
1
R
Th
= 6/1 = 6O

33
Using PSpice to verify Nortons and Thevenins Theorems
I4
1Aac
TRAN =
0
R8
2
R7
6
20.00V
R6
4
6.667V
0
-
+
+
-
E2
E
20.00V
I3
1Aac
TRAN =
5
R9
2
V
Th
= 20V