Welcome

Course:
AP Physics
Room:
207
Teacher:
Mrs. LaBarbera
Email: diana.labarbera@valleycentralschools.org
Post session: Tue. Fri.

Objectives

Introduction of AP physics curriculum

Lab safety
Sign in lab safety attendance sheet
Chapter 1 - units, physical quantities, and
vectors

Chapter 1- units, physical

quantities, and vectors
1. Know the fundamental quantities and units of
mechanics.
2. Be able to determine the number of significant figures in
calculations.
3. Differentiate between vectors and scalars
4. Be able to add and subtract vectors graphically.
5. Be able to determine the components of vectors and to
use them in calculations
6. Know the unit vector and be able to use them with
components to describe vectors
7. Know the two ways of multiplying vectors.

1.1 The Nature of Physics

Physics is an experimental science.
Theories are formed through observation
and experiments. However, no theory is
ever regarded as the final and ultimate
truth.
All theories can be revised by new
observations.
All theories have a range of validity.

Percent error
Measurements made during laboratory work
yield an experimental value
Accepted value are the measurements
determined by scientists and published in the
reference table.
The difference between and experimental value
and the published accepted value is called the
absolute error.
The percent error of a measurement can be
calculated by
(absolute error)
experimental value accepted value
X 100%
Percent error =
accepted value

1.2 Solving Physics Problems

I SEE

Identify the relevant concepts determine

target variable and the given quantities.
Set up the problem choose equations based
on the known and unknown from Identify step.
Execute the solution do the math
Evaluate your answer Does the answer
make sense?

1.3 Standards and Units

SI Fundamental Quantities And Units Of Mechanics

Quantity Standards

SI unit (symbol)

Time

Time required for 9,192,631,770 cycles

of cesium microwave radiation

second (s)

Length

Distance light travels in vacuum in

1/299,792,458 seconds

Meter (m)

Mass

The mass of a particular cylinder of

platinum-iridium alloy kept at
International Bureau of Weights and
Measures a Servres, France

kilogram (kg)

All other units can be expressed by combinations of these

fundamental (base) units. The combined base units is called
derived units.

Derived units
Like derived dimensions, when we
combine base unit to describe a quantity,
we call the combined unit a derived unit.
Example:
Volume = L3 (m3)
Velocity = length / time = LT-1 (m/s)
Density = mass / volume = ML3 (kg/m3)

SI prefixes
SI prefixes are prefixes (such as k, m, c,
G) combined with SI base units to form
new units that are larger or smaller than the
base units by a multiple or sub-multiple of
10.
Example: km where k is prefix, m is
base unit for length.
1 km = 103 m = 1000 m, where 103 is in
scientific notation using powers of 10

SI uses prefixes for extremes

prefixes for power of ten
Prefix

Symbol

Notation

tera

1012

giga

109

mega

106

kilo

103

deci

10-1

centi

10-2

milli

10-3

micro

10-6

nano

10-9

pico

10-12

 The British System

Length:
Force:

1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 pound = 4.448221615260 N

Physical Dimensions
The dimension of a physical quantity specifies
what sort of quantity it isspace, time, energy,
etc.
We find that the dimensions of all physical
quantities can be expressed as combinations of
a few fundamental dimensions: length [L],
mass [M], time [T].
For example,
The dimension for Energy: E = ML2/T2
The dimension for Impulse: J = ML/T

1.4 Unit consistency and

conversions
We can check for error in an equation or expression by
checking the dimensions. Quantities on the opposite
sides of an equal sign must have the same dimensions.
Quantities of different dimensions can be multiplied but not
added together.
For example, a proposed equation of motion, relating
distance traveled (x) to the acceleration (a) and elapsed
time (t).
1

at 2

Dimensionally, this looks like

L
L= 2
T

=L

At least, the equation is dimensionally correct; it may still

be wrong on other grounds, of course.

Example
use dimensional analysis to check if the equation is correct.

d=v/t
L = (L T ) T

[L] L T2

Conversion Strategies: I SEE

Identify the target units and the known conversion
factors
Setup the problem using the given units and conversion
factors to determine the unknown. Note units can be
multiplied or divided like numbers.
Execute: do the math
Evaluate: Does the answer make sense?
Example: we wish to convert 2 miles into meters. (given
conversion factors:1 miles = 1760 yards, 1 yd = 0.9144 m)

1760 yard 0.9144 m

2mile

3218 m
1mile
1yard
Note: the units are a part of the measurement as important as the
number. They must always be kept together.

Example 1.1
The official world land speed record is 1228.0
km/h, set on 10/15/1997, by Andy Green in the
jet engine car Thrust SSC. Express this speed in
m/s.

Example 1.2
The worlds largest cut diamond is the First Star
of Africa. Its volume is 1.84 cubic inches. What
is tis volume in cubic centimeers? In cubic
meters?

Example
Convert 80 km/hr to m/s.
Given: 1 km = 1000 m; 1 hr = 3600 s
km
80
x 1000 m
hr
1 km

1 hr
= 22
3600 s

m
s

Units obey same rules as algebraic variables and

numbers!!

Example
Dimensional Analysis is simply a technique you can use to
convert from one unit to another. The main thing you have to
remember is that the GIVEN UNIT MUST CANCEL OUT.

Suppose we want to convert 65 mph to ft/s

or m/s.
miles 1hour 1 min 5280 ft 65 11 5280

65
1 60 60 1
hour 60 min 60 sec 1mile

ft
95
s

1meter 95 1
1 3.281
3.281 ft

29 m / s

ft
95
s

1.5 Uncertainty and Significant

Figures
Instruments cannot perform measurements to arbitrary
precision. A meter stick commonly has markings 1 millimeter
(mm) apart, so distances shorter than that cannot be
measured accurately with a meter stick.
We report only significant digitsthose whose values we feel
sure are accurately measured. There are two basic rules:
(i) the last significant digit is the first uncertain digit
(ii) when multiply/divide numbers, the result has no more
significant digits than the least precise of the original
numbers.
The tests and exercises in the textbook assume there are 3
significant digits.

Scientific Notation and Significant Digits

Scientific notation is simply a way of writing very large or
very small numbers in a compact way.
299792485 2.998 108
0.0000000010878 1.088 10 9

The uncertainty can be shown in scientific notation

simply by the number of digits displayed in the mantissa

1.5 10

1.50 103

2 digits, the 5 is uncertain.

3 digits, the 0 is uncertain.

Example 1.3
The rest energy E of an object with rest mass m is given by
Einsteins equation
E = mc2
Where c is the speed of the light in vacuum (c = 2.99792458 x 108
m/s). Find E for an object with m = 9.11 x 10-31 kg.

Test Your Understanding 1.5

The density of a material is equal to its mass divided by
its volume. What is the density (in kg/m3) of a rock of
mass 1.80 kg and volume 6.0 x 10-4 m3
1. 3 x 103 kg/m3
2. 3.0 x 103 kg/m3
3. 3.00x 103 kg/m3
4. 3.000x 103 kg/m3
5. Any of these

1.6 Estimates and orders of

magnitude
Estimation of an answer is often done by rounding
any data used in a calculation.
Comparison of an estimate to an actual calculation
can head off errors in final results.

Example 1.4
You are writing an adventure novel in which the hero
escapes across the border with a billion dollars worth of
gold in his suitcase. Is this possible? Would that amount
of gold fit in a suitcase? Would it be too heavy to carry?
(given 1 g of gold $10.00 and density of gold 1 g/cm3)

Test Your Understanding 1.6

What is approximate number of teeth in all
the mouths of everyone at VC?

1.7 vectors and vector additions

There are two kinds of quantities
Vectors have both magnitude and direction
displacement, velocity, acceleration
Scalars have magnitude only
distance, speed, time, mass

Vectors
Vectors show magnitude and direction, drawn as a ray.

Equal and Inverse Vectors

Two ways to represent vectors

Geometric approach
Vectors are symbolized graphically as arrows, in
text by bold-face type or with a line/arrow on top.
A

Magnitude: the size of the arrow

Direction: degree from East

Algebraic approach
Vectors are represent in a coordinate system, e.g.
Cartesian x, y, z. The system must be an inertial
coordinate system, which means it is non-accelerated.
y

y1
o

Magnitude: R = x12 +y12

p(x1, y1)

x1

Direction: = tan-1(y1/x1)

Vector addition
Vectors may be added graphically, head to tail. or
parallegram

Commutative properties of
vector addition

R A B C ( A B) C A ( B C )

Resultant and equilibrant

A+B=R

A
R

R is called the resultant vector!

E is called the equilibrant vector!

Subtract vectors: adding a

negative vector

example
At time t = t1, and objects velocity is given by the vector
v1 a short time later, at t = t2, the objects velocity is the
vector v2. If the magnitude of v1 = the magnitude of v2,
which one of the following vectors best illustrates the
objects average acceleration between t = t1 and t = t2
v2

v1

v2

v2 v1
v1
-v1

v2 -v1

v2

Example 1.5
A cross-country skier
skies 1.00 km north and
then 2.00 km east on a
horizontal snow field.
How far and in what
direction is she from the
starting point?

Test Your Understanding 1.7

Two displacement vectors, S and T, have magnitudes S =
3 m and T = 4 m. Which of the following could be the
magnitude of the difference vector S -T? (there may be
more than one correct answer)
1. 9 m
2. 7 m
3. 5 m
4. 1 m
5. 0 m
6. -1 m

1.8 Components of vectors

Manipulating vectors graphically is insightful but difficult when
striving for numeric accuracy. Vector components provide a numeric
method of representation.
Any vector is built from an x component and a y component.
Any vector may be decomposed into its x component using A*cos
and its y component using A*sin (where is the angle the vector A
sweeps out from 0).

A Ax A y

sin

Ay
A

cos

Ay
A

The sign of the component depends on the

angle from 0o
Y is positive
X is negative

Y is negative
X is negative

Example 1.6.
a) what are the x and y components of vector D? the magnitude
of the vector is D = 3.00 m and the angle = 45o.
b) what are the x and y components of vector E? the magnitude of
the vector is E = 4.50 m and the angle = 37.0o.

Doing vector calculations using components

Vector addition strategies
1) Resolve each vector into its x- and ycomponents.
Ax = Acos
Ay = Asin
Bx = Bcos
By = Bsin
etc.
2) Add the x-components together to get
Rx and the y-components to get Ry.
Rx = Ax + Bx
Ry = Ay + By
3) Calculate the magnitude of the
resultant with the Pythagorean
Theorem R R 2 R 2
x
y
4) Determine the angle with the
equation = tan-1 Ry/Rx.
Finding the direction of a vector sum by looking at the individual components

Multiplying a vector by a scalar

Multiplying a vector by a positive scalar changes the
magnitude (length) of the vector, but not its direction.
A
D =2A

2A is twice as long as A
Dx = 2Ax, Dy = 2Ay

Multiplying a vector by a negative scalar changes the

magnitude (length) of the vector and reverse its
direction.
A
D = -3A

-3A is three times as long as A

and points in the opposite
direction.
Dx = -3Ax, Dy = -3Ay

Example 1.7
Three players are brought to the center of a large, flat field, each is
given a meter stick, a compass, a calculator, a shovel, and the
following three displacements:
72. 4 m 32.0o east of north
57.3 m 36.0o south of west
17.8 m straight south
The three displacements lead to the point where the keys to a new
Porsche are buried. Two players start measuring immediately, but the
winner first calculates where to go. What does she calculate?

Example 1.8
After an airplane takes off, it travels 10.4 km west, 8.7
km north, and 2.1 km up. How far us it from the takeoff
point?

Test Your Understanding 1.8

Two vectors A and B both lie in the xy-plane.
a. Is it possible for A to have the same magnitude
as B but different components?
b. Is it possible for A to have the same components
as B but a different magnitude?

1.9 Unit vectors

A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1, with
no units. Its only purpose is to point, or describe a
direction in space.
Unit vector is denoted by ^ symbol.
For example:
^
i represents a unit vector that points in the direction
of the + x-axis

j unit vector points in the + y-axis

^
^
k unit vector points in the + z-axis

^
j

^
k
z

^
i
x

 Any vector can be represented in terms of

unit vectors, i, j, k
Vector A has components:
Ax, Ay, Az

A = Axi + Ayj + Azk

In two dimensions:
A = Axi + Ayj

Magnitude and direction of the

vector
In two dimensions:
The magnitude of the vector is
|A| = Ax2 + Ay2

The direction of the vector is

= tan-1(Ay/Ax)

In three dimensions:
The magnitude of the vector is
|A| = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2

Adding Vectors By Component

using unit vector representation
s=a+b
Where a = axi + ayj & b = bxi + byj
s = (ax + bx)i + (ay + by)j
sx = ax + bx; sy = ay + by
s = sxi + syj
s2 = sx2 + sy2
tanf sy / sx

example
a. Is the vector A = ^
i + ^
j + ^
k a unit vector?
b. Can a unit vector have any components
with magnitude greater than unity? Can it
have any negative components?
^
^
A
=
a
(3.0
i
+
4.0
j ), where a is a
c. If
constant, determine the value of a that
makes A a unit vector.

Example 1.9
Given the two displacement

D =(6 ^
i + 3^
j -^
k) m

^
^
E =(4i - 5 j + 8 ^
k) m

Find the magnitude of the displacement

2D - E
^
^
^
=(8
i
+
11
j
10
k) m
2D - E

Its magnitude = ( 82 + 112 + 102 ) m = 17 m

Test Your Understanding 1.9

Arrange the following vectors in order of
their magnitude, with the vector of largest
magnitude first.
a.A = (3i + 5j 2k) m
b.B = (-3i + 5j 2k) m
c.C = (3i 5j 2k) m
d.D = (3i + 5j + 2k) m

1.10 Products of Vectors

1. A scalar Product

C A B A B cosf
C = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
Scalar product or dot product, yields a result that is
a scalar quantity.
Example: work W = F d the Result is a scalar with
magnitude and no direction.
Scalar product is commutative:

A B B A

C ( A B) C A C B

1.25

C A B A B cosf

C A B//

C A// B

The sign of the

scalar product

 Scalar product of same vectors:

AA = |A||A|cos0o = |A|2

Scalar product of opposite vectors:

A(-A) = |A||A|cos180o = -|A|2

-A

Application of scalar product

When a constant force F is applied to a body that
undergoes a displacement d, the work done by the force
is given by

W = Fd
The work done by the force is
positive if the angle between F and d is between 0 and
90o (example: lifting weight)
Negative if the angle between F and d is between 90o
and 180o (example: stop a moving car)

Zero and F and d are perpendicular to each other

(example: waiter holding a tray of food while walk
around)

Calculating the scalar product

using components
Parallel unit vectors

perpendicular unit vectors

ii=1

ij=ji=0

jj=1

jk=kj=0

kk=1

ik=ki=0

C A B Ax B x Ay B y Az B z

example
A = Axi + Ayj + Azk
Aj = ?
Aj = (Axi + Ayj + Azk)j = Ay
Component of A along y-Axis

Example 1.10 Calculating a scalar

product
Find the vector product AB of
the two vectors in the diagram.
The magnitudes of the vectors
are A = 4.00 and B = 5.00

Finding the angles with the scalar product

Find the dot product and the angle between the
two vectors
A B = |A||B|cos= AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
|A| = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2
|B| = Bx2 + By2 + Bz2

Ax B x Ay B y Az B z
A B
cos

A B ( A 2 A 2 A 2 )( B 2 B 2 B 2 )
x
y
z
x
y
z
If cos is negative, is between 90o and 180o

example
A = 3i + 7k
B = -i + 2j + k
AB = ?
=?

Example 1.11
Find the angel between the two vectors:
A = 2i + 3j + k

and

B = -4i + 2j - k

The vector product

Termed the cross product. Result is a vector
with magnitude and a direction perpendicular to
the plane established by the other two vectors.

Direction is determined by Right Hand Rule

Place the vector tail to tail, they
define the plane
A x B is perpendicular to the plane
containing the vectors A and B.
Right-hand rule: we follow the
direction of the fingers to go from the
A to B, then the thumb points in the
direction of A x B

BxA=-AxB

Magnitude of C = A B
C = AB sin (magnitude)

Where is the angle from A toward B, and is

the smaller of the two possible angles.

Since 0 180o, 0 sin 1, |A x B| is

never negative.

Note when A and B are in the same direction or in the

opposite direction, sin = 0;
The vector product of two parallel or anti-parallel
vectors is always zero.


C A B A B

C A B B A

Vector product vs. scalar product

Vector product:
A x B = ABsin (magnitude)
Direction: right-hand rule-perpendicular to the A, B
plane

Scalar product:
AB = ABcos (magnitude)
It has no direction.
When A and B are parallel
AxB is zero
AB is maximum

When A and B are

perpendicular to each other
AxB is maximum
AB is zero

Calculating the vector product using

components
If we know the components of A and B, we can
calculate the components of the vector product.
The product of any vector with itself is zero
i x i = 0; j x j = 0; k x k = 0

Using the right hand rule and A x B = ABsin

i x j = -j x i = k;
j x k = -k x j = i;
k x i = - i x k = j

A x B = (Axi + Ayj + Azk) x (Bxi + Byj + Bzk)

= AxByk - AxBzj
AyBxk + AyBzi
+ AzBxj - AzByi
A x B = (AyBz AzBy) i + (AzBx - AxBz) j + (AxBy AyBx) k
If C = A x B then

Cx = AyBz AzBy;

Cy = AzBx - AxBz;

Cz = AxBy AyBx

The vector product can also be expressed in determinant

form as

AxB=

Ax

Ay

Az

Ax

Ay

Az

Bx

By

Bz

Bx

By

Bz

- direction

+ direction

A x B =(AyBz AzBy) i + (AzBx - AxBz) j + (AxBy AyBx) k

Example 1.12
Vector A has a magnitude of 6 units and is in the
direction of +x axis. Vector B has a magnitude of 4
o
units and lies in the xy-plane, making an angle
of
30

with the +x-axis. Find vector product A B

Check Your Understanding 1.10

Vector A has magnitude 2 and vector B has magnitude
3. the angle between A and B is known to be either 0o,
90o, or 180o. For each of the following situations, state
what the value of must be. (in each situation there may
be more than one correct answer.)
1. AB = 0
2. A x B = 0
3. AB = 6
4. AB = - 6
5. A x B= 6