Analysing sentences : an introduction to

English syntax - 2nd ed.

Noel Burton-Roberts.

SYNTAX
(1) In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the
ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses,
and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components
of grammar.

(2) The arrangement of words in a sentence.

Chapter 1. Sentence Structure: Constituents

Chapter 2. Sentence Structure: Functions

Chapter 3. Sentence Structure: Categories

Chapter 4. The Verb Phrase

Chapter 5. Adverbials and Other Matters
Chapter 6. The Verb Group
Chapter 7. More on Noun Phrases
Chapter 8. Sentences within Sentences

Chapter 9. Wh-Clauses
Chapter 10. Non-finite Clauses
Chapter 11. Languages, Sentences, and Grammars.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

CONSTITUENTS

1. What is a structure?

1. Mode of building, construction, or organization; arrangement of

parts, elements, or constituents:

Ex: a pyramidal structure.

2.Something built or constructed, as a building:

Ex: bridge, or dam.

3. A complex system considered from the point of view of the
whole rather than of any single part:

Ex: the structure of modern science.

4.Anything composed of parts arranged together in some way;

Ex: an organization.
5.The relationship or organization of the component parts of a
work of art or literature:

Ex: the structure of a poem.

Sentence structure involves the actual format of the sentence.

A simple sentence
A compound sentence
A complex sentence
A complex-compound sentence (or compound-complex sentence)

a. it is divisible into parts (called CONSTITUENTS);

b. there are different kinds of parts (called CATEGORIES);

c. the constituents are ARRANGED in a specifiable way;

d. that each constituent has a certain specifiable FUNCTION in the

structure of the thing as a whole.

The parts consist of parts

consist of further parts.

ILL-FORMED (UNGRAMMATICAL)
1.) The nevertheless procrastinate foxtrot.

2.) And and if.

3.) Disappears none girls of the students.
4.) Put Mary.
5.) Max will bought a frying pans.

wheel

wheel

frame

chain

handlebars

a constituent (part) of a bicycle.

Bicycle Wheel

Bicycle Spoke

*What do sentences
consist of?

[4]

Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream

[5]

old

Sam sunbathed

beside a

stream

[6]

*Stream old Sam sunbathed beside a

[7]

*Sunbathed old beside stream a Sam

[3a]

Tree-Diagram

Bicycle

wheel

spoke spoke

[3b]

Bicycle

wheel
spoke

spoke

ESTABLISHING CONSTITUENTS
[4][5] OLD SAM SUNBATHED BESIDE A STREAM.
[10] Old Sam sunbathed beside a
[11] Old Sam sunbathed beside
[12] Old Sam sunbathed
[13] Old Sam

[14] Old
[15] Martha smiled.
[16] Martha smiled invitingly.

[17] The very muscular gentleman next to me lit a cigar.

[18] The () gentleman next to me lit a cigar.

[19] The very muscular gentleman () lit a cigar.

[20] The () gentleman () lit a cigar.

Very muscular [18] [19]

Next to me [19] [20]

***PHRASES which are OPTIONAL constituents (parts) in the
structure of sentence [17].

 Syntax
Structure

Sentence

structure

Constituent
Ill-formed
Phrase

(immediate, optional, obligatory)

(ungrammatical)

PHRASES

Sequences of words that can function as constituents (parts) in

the structure of sentences.

Since our tree diagrams are intended to represent structure by

marking which sequences of words in a sentence are its constituent
phrases, such diagrams are called PHRASE-MARKERS.

BESIDE A STREAM = a constituent of sentence [4].

= a phrase.

EXAMPLE (sentence [16] )

Martha smiled invitingly.

INVITINGLY was a constituent in [16].

Beside a stream is functioning as a constituent in

[4] OLD SAM SUNBATHED BESIDE A STREAM.

[25a]

PHRASE

[25b]

PHRASE

PHRASE
beside a stream

beside a stream

[25c]

PHRASE

PHRASE
beside a

stream

[33] SAM SUNBATHED BESIDE A STREAM THAT HAD DRIED UP.

[34]

PHRASE-a

beside

PHRASE-b

a stream that had dried up

[35]

PHRASE-a

PHRASEb

PHRASE-c

beside a stream that had dried up

LET US TRY!!!
A

B
D
a

C
F

E
b

In tree-diagram above, what are the immediate constituents of:

1.) A?

2.) B?

3.) C?

 Draw a phrase-marker for the phrase:

their rather dubious jokes.

Showing that it contains further phrase: rather dubious

jokes, which in turn contains rather dubious as a phrase.

Draw a phrase-marker for the phrase:

Men from the Ministry

Showing that it contains further phrase:

from the ministry,

which in turn contains the phrase:

the ministry.

Identify the source of the ambiguity in terms of two different constituent

analyses
1-This story shows what evil men can do.
2-They only sell rotten fruit and vegetables.
3-She returned early that morning.
4-More interesting meal would have been appreciated.
5-We need an agreement between workers on overtime.
6-Bill asked the man who had seen.
7-She was at the window, the street atlas in her hand, looking up the street.

This story shows what evil men can do.

a)This story shows what (evil men) can do.

b)This story shows (what evil) (men can do.)

1- This story shows what evil men can do.

a)This story shows what (evil men) can do.

b)This story shows (what evil) (men can do.)
2- They only sell rotten fruit and vegetable.

a) They only sell (rotten fruit and vegetable).

b) They only sell (rotten fruit) and vegetable.
3-She returned early that evening.
a) She (returned early) that evening

b) She returned (early that evening)

4- More interesting meal would have been appreciated.

a- (More interesting) (meal) would have been appreciated.

b- (More)( interesting meal) would have been appreciated.

5- We need an agreement between workers on overtime.

a)We need (an agreement) (between workers) on overtime.
b)We need (an agreement between workers) on overtime.
6-Bill asked the man who had seen.
a) Bill asked (the man who had seen.)

b)Bill asked (the man) (who had seen).

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

[1] Ducks paddle.

SENTENCE
ducks

paddle

The ducks are paddling away.

[The ducks] [are paddling away.]

[5] [Those gigantic ducks] [were paddling away furiously].

[6] [The mouth-watering duck on the table] [wont be paddling away again].

The sentences were divided into two divisions 1.) Subject and 2.) Predicate.

Turn the sentence into a question that can be answered by yes or no.

[7]

Are [the ducks] paddling away?

[8]

Were [those gigantic ducks] paddling away furiously?

[9]

Wont [the mouth-watering duck on the table] be paddling away again?

The question movement test is important because it is actually part of the

definition of what a subject is that it changes its position in such questions.

[10] It is snowing again.

[11] Is [it] snowing again?

Identify the subjects of the following sentences:

[12] Some nasty accident could have occurred.

[13] The clown in the make-up room doesnt want to perform.

[14] Elizabeth and Leicester are rowing on the river.

[15] None of her attempts to give up chocolate were really serious.
[16] As a matter of fact, the man you paid to do it has been
arrested.

NOUN PHRASE AND VERB PHRASE

All the SUBJECTS we have looked at have one thing in common: they all contain,
and are centered on, the same CATEGORY of word, which is a NOUN.

They are all NOUN PHRASE.

Any phrase that can function as a subject is a Noun Phrase.

The phrases functioning as PREDICATES, on the other hand, all contain, and are
centered on, a VERB.

They are all VERB PHRASE.

*Chiropodist- is a foot doctor @_@

[25] The chiropodist fell in love with most of his patients.

[32] The pianist has rejected the chiropodist.

NP
The ducks

VP
are paddling away.

Try with sentence [32]:

THE PIANIST HAS REJECTED THE CHIROPODIST.

DEPENDENCY AND FUNCTION

When two constituent nodes are immediately dominated by the same

single node, as is the case with B and C in [35], they are said to be sisters.
[35]

A
B

B and C are also daughters of A.

A, the node that immediately dominates them.

MODIFIER AND HEAD

PHRASE-a
PHRASE-b
PHRASE-c

their

rather

dubious

jokes

There are three sister relationships:

1.) their and PHRASE-b,
2.) PHRASE-c and jokes,
3.) rather and dubious.
Rather depends on dubious but not vice versa. This function is called
MODIFICATION.

HEAD AND COMPLEMENT

PHRASE-a

beside

PHRASE-b
a

stream

HOW MANY SISTER RELATIONSHIPS ARE THERE IN THE PHRASE?

BESIDE is the head of the phrase

BESIDE demands a following phrase like a stream.

When a head demands a further expression in this way, that other

obligatory expression is said to be COPLEMENT.

Complements typically follow their heads in English

IDENTIFY THE SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES OF THE

FOLLOWING SENTENCES:

a. Her memory for names and dates was a constant source of amazement to him.

b. The prune fritters left something to be desired.

c. There are too many uninvited guests here.

d. Only six of the thirty domino-toppling contestants came properly equipped.

e. It was Lydia who finally trapped the pig.

f. The fact that you received no birthday greetings from Mars doesnt mean

that it is uninhabited.

g. In the machine, the gremlin could be heard juggling with ball-bearings.