C HAPT E R FI FT E E N

15
THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM

Divisions of the nervous system

Anatomical Organization of the

Nervous System

Neuronal Organization: CNS

Found in both
brain and spinal
cord:

1. centers = cell
bodies
2. gray matter =
cell bodies/centers,
neuroglia,
unmyelinated
axons, and
dendrites of motor
neurons

- Clusters of cell
bodies = nuclei

Tracts = white matter, bundles of axons

For the conduction of nerve impulses
Two types: sensory and motor tracts (ascending and
descending)
Sensory tracts relay sensory information obtained from
receptors throughout the body to the brain via the spinal
cord
Responses to this information is relayed back to effectors
via motor tracts

Pathways
A neural pathway is comprised of centers/cell bodies and
tracts
Sensory pathway
Ascending
Information from sensory receptors to CNS

Motor pathway

Descending
Information from CNS to skeletal muscle or glands
Direct pathways cause precise, voluntary movements
Indirect pathways result in involuntary movement (from brain
stem)

An Introduction to the Organization

of the Brain

Major Regions of the Brain

Figure 15.1 Major Divisions of
the Brain

Major Regions of the Brain

Figure 15.13b Sectional Views of

the Brain

Major Regions and Landmarks

Cerebrum = largest portion
-left and right cerebral hemispheres divided by the longitudinal fissure
-connected by the corpus callosum
-folded into ridges and grooves: grooves = sulci
-sulci divide the cerebrum into lobes
-ridges = gyri (gyrus)

Central sulcus
Frontal and parietal
lobes

Major Regions and

Landmarks

-cerebrum is comprised of:

1. white matter - neurons with
long, myelinated axons
-organized into tracts
2. basal nuclei or gray matter
-sometimes called the basal
ganglia 4 nuclei found
deep within the cerebrum
- links to the midbrain
- receives input from the cortex
& provides output to the motor
areas of the cortex via the
thalamus
-integrate motor commands
-regulates the initiation &
termination of muscle mve.
-also functions to anticipate
body movements & controls
subconscious contraction of
skeletal muscle

- basal ganglia: multiple nuclei found deep within the cerebrum

-first described by Thomas Wells - 1664
- links to the midbrain
-1. receives input from the cortex & provides output to the motor areas of the cortex via the
thalamus
-2. integrates motor commands
-3. regulates the initiation & termination of muscle mve.
-4. also functions to anticipate body movements & controls subconscious contraction of skeletal
muscle

Basal Ganglia

comprised of the:
1. striatum
caudate nucleus: activity occurs prior to eye movements
putamen: precedes or anticipates body movements
nucleus accumbens

2. globus pallidus: regulates muscle tone for movements

3. claustrum
4. substantia nigra: high concentration of dopanergic neurons
5. subthalmic nucleus

Medical application: Basal Ganglia

-damage to the basal ganglia:
-results in uncontrollable, abnormal body movements
-muscle rigidity may develop and tremors
-Parkinson neurons that extend from the substantia nigra
to the caudate nucleus and putamen
degenerate
-loss of dopamine releasing neurons increase in
muscle tone and stiffness
-Huntington - hereditary disorder
-caudate nucleus and putamen degenerate with loss
of neurons that release GABA or ACh
-spasmatic muscle contractions and loss of mental
status

Major Regions and Landmarks

-outer layer = cerebral cortex
-area for specific processing of
sensation, -area of voluntary
movement, speech, all thought
processes

-motor and sensory areas

e.g. primary somatosensory
area (postcentral gyrus): touch,
proprioception, pain, itching,
thermal - forms a map of the
entire body

-plus association areas for integration and

analysis of incoming info & help in
making of decisions

e.g. somatosensory, visual, auditory,

language and common integrative areas

e.g. primary visual, auditory &

gustatory areas
e.g. primary motor area
(precentral gyrus): controls
voluntary contractions
e.g. Brocas speech area

Major Regions and Landmarks

-speech: involves complex

-aphasia: injury to language areas of the cortex

-inability to comprehend or use words
-damage to Brocas = nonfluent aphasia
(inability to form words)
-damage to auditory association area = fluent
aphasia (inability to comprehend spoken or
written words)

activities that involve sensory,

association & the motor areas of
the cortex
-97% of the population these
language areas are located in the
left hemisphere
-planning and production of
speech Brocas
-the left frontal lobe
-sends impulses to the premotor
area that controls contractions
of the larynx, pharynx & mouth
-plus impulses are sent to the
primary motor area where
they control breathing

-Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Lou Gehrigs disease

-unknown cause
-attacks motor areas of the cortex, axons of motor neurons
in the spinal cord and motor neuron cell bodies
-muscle weakness and atrophy
-begins in regions of the SC that affect hands and arms and
then spreads

Major Regions and Landmarks

Diencephalon
includes the hypothalamus, thalamus,
epithalamus and subthalamus
thalamus: 80% of the diencephalon
paired oval masses of gray matter
organized into nuclei, interspersed
with white matter
major relay station for most sensory
impulses from the SC, brain stem
crude perception of pain, heat and
pressure (refined in cerebrum)
transmits motor information from
cerebellum to the cerebrum
relays nerve impulses to and from
different areas of the cerebrum

Major Regions and Landmarks

hypothalamus
-Emotions, autonomic
functions, hormone production
-mamillary bodies serve as
relay stations for reflexes
related to eating
-supraoptic and preoptic
nuclei that in hormone
secretion (ADH) and body
temp
1. control of the ANS
integrates signals from the
ANS (regulated smooth and
cardiac muscle contraction)
major regulator of visceral
activities (heart rate, food
movements, contraction of
bladder)
2. produces hormones &
connects with pituitary to
regulate its activity

3. regulates emotional and behavioral patterns rage,

aggression, pain and pleasure + sexual arousal
4. regulates eating & drinking hypothalamus contains
a thirst center which responds to a rise in osmotic
pressure in the ECF (dehydration)
5. controls body temperature monitors temp of blood
flowing through the hypothalamus

epithalamus consists of the pineal gland and habenular nuclei

-pineal gland part of the endocrine system
-secretes the hormone melatonin
-increased secretion in dark
-promote sleepiness and helps set the circadian
rhythms of the body (awake/sleep period)

subthalamus works with the cerebrum and cerebellum to control body

movements

Major Regions and Landmarks

BRAIN STEM
comprised of three structures: midbrain, pons & medulla
contains clusters of gray matter interspersed among white matter
-region where the gray and white matter are found exhibit a net-like
conformation = reticular formation
-part of this region (reticular activating system/RAS) consists of sensory
axons that project into the cerebrum - maintain consciousness and is active
during transition from sleep to awakening
-also consists of motor axons that regulate muscle tone

the midbrain, pons & medulla also are comprised of specialized areas
with unique functions

Major Regions and Landmarks

BRAIN STEM
Medulla oblongata
continuation of the SC
forms the inferior part of the brain stem
relays sensory information and controls
automatic motor functions
white matter contains sensory/ascending
and motor/descending tracts
contains several nuclei also
these regulate autonomic functions - reflex
centers for regulating heartbeat and BP
(cardiovascular center), respiration
(respiratory center), plus vomiting,
coughing, sneezing, hiccuping and
swallowing
nuclei in the posterior part are associated
with sensations of touch, proprioception,
pressure and vibration

-injury to the medulla: hard blow to the

back of the head or upper neck can be
fatal
-damages the medullary rhythmicity
area of the respiratory center (disrupts
pattern of breathing)
-non-fatal injury: paralysis and loss of
sensation, irregular breathing and heart
rate

Major Regions and Landmarks

BRAIN STEM
Pons
= bridge
- e.g. connects brain stem to the cerebrum
via bundles of axons
- superior to the medulla and anterior to the
cerebellum
consists of nuclei (cell bodies in gray
matter) and tracts
somatic and visceral motor responses
Pontine nuclei control voluntary
movements that originate in the cerebral
cortex and are relayed through the pons
into the cerebellum
Pneumotaxic area controls breathing
(with medulla)
Apneustic area controls breathing (with
medulla)

Major Regions and Landmarks

BRAIN STEM
Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
relay station between the cerebrum and
the spinal cord
extends from the pons to the
diencephalon
sends motor tracts to the SC, medulla
and pons & conducts sensory tracts to
the thalamus
processes visual and auditory
information - posterior part of the
midbrain
transfers information from the retina to
the eye muscles - tracking & scanning
pupillary reflex, shape of the lens
reflexes that mediate movements of the
eyes, head and neck
relays impulses from hearing receptors
to the thalamus

-generates involuntary somatic

motor responses
release of dopamine from
substantia nigra (nuclei) - loss of
these neurons = Parkinsons
red nuclei forms synapses with
cerebellum to coordinate muscle
movements

Major Regions and Landmarks

Cerebellum
divided into hemisphere with
lobes - like the cerebrum
anterior and posterior lobes
has a superficial layer of gray
matter called the cerebellar cortex
- like the brain
deep to the gray matter are tracts
of white matter
adjusts voluntary and involuntary
motor activities
evaluates and coordinates
motor activities initiated by the
cerebrum and corrects problems
by sending info back to the
cerebrum
regulate posture & balance

uses sensory data and stored

memories

The Limbic System

called the emotional brain

corpus
group of structures that surround
callosumcingulate gyrus
anterior thalmic nuclei
hypothalmic nuclei
the brain stem
fornix
involved in olfaction and
memory
emotion anger, fear,
happiness
associated with specific
responses behavioral
patterns
basic behavioral patterns
olfactory tract
preparing for attack,
mamillary body
laughing, crying, blushing
amygdala
also includes sexual
parahippocampal gyrus
behaviors for the
hippocampus
continuation of the species
connects with the
hypothalamus to regulate
these behaviors

The Limbic System

called the emotional brain
involved in olfaction and memory
main components:
1. limbic lobe: rim of cerebral cortex on the medial surface of
each hemisphere comprised of the cingulate and parahippocampal
gyri

2. dentate gyrus containing the hippocampus

3. amygdala: stimulation - rage
4. olfactory bulbs
5. septal nuclei
6. mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus motor nuclei for
reflexes associated with eating (chewing, swallowing, licking
etc...)
7. fornix white tracts that connect the hypothalamus to the
hippocampus
fibers end at the mamillary bodies

Protection and Support of the Brain

The Cranial Meninges

Cranium is covered with protective membranes
= meninges
Cranial meninges are continuous with spinal
meninges
3 layers: 1. outer, fibrous dura mater forms
sheets (falx) that separate the cerebrum and the
cerebellum into the hemispheres and the
cerebellum from the cerebrum

-comprised of an outer endosteal layer and and

inner meningeal layer
2. middle arachnoid mater
3. inner, thin pia mater
-there are spaces between these membranes
A. subarachnoid space: between the
arachnoid and pia maters
B. subdural space: between the
arachnoid and the dura mater
C. epidural space between the dura
mater and the vertebral canal in the
spinal column

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

Blood into brain via the internal carotid and vertebral arteries
Blood supply to brain must be continuous
Brain stores no glucose
Uses about 20% of the oxygen and glucose in the body

The BBB prevents harmful substances in the blood from reaching

the brain tissue
The endothelial cells lining the brain capillaries have very tight
tight junctions
BBB allows passage of lipid-soluble substances (gases, alcohol,
anesthetic agents), slows the passage of most water-soluble
substances (ions, urea) and PREVENTS the passage of proteins
and most antibiotic drugs (i.e. large molecules)

Ventricles of the Brain & CSF

Ventricles
Chambers in central
passageway of the brain
2 lateral ventricles, 1 third
ventricle, 1 fourth ventricle
connects to the central canal
which runs into the spinal
canal
These chambers contain
cerebrospinal fluid

Ventricles of the Brain & CSF

CSF:
80 to 150 mL glucose,
proteins, lactic acid, urea,
ions
made by specialized cells
in the lateral ventricles
choroid plexus
continually circulates ventricles and central canal
to subarachnoid space
Chemical and physical
protection provides
proper ionic environment
for neuronal action
potentials + shock
absorber
transports nutrients,
chemical messengers and
waste products.

large spaces for the circulation

of blood can be found between the
two dural layers = sinuses
e.g. superior sagittal sinus
also large veins run through the
subarachnoid space
e.g. cerebral veins

CSF is gradually reabsorbed into the

blood through fingerlike projections
into the dural venous sinuses = arachnoid
granulations
interfering with the drainage of CSF
into the subarachnoid space can result
in accumulation of CSF in the ventricles
& CSF pressure rises = hydrocephalus
(implantation of a shunt lateral ventricle
into the superior vena cava or abdomen)

Flow of CSF

The blood supply to the brain

Arterial blood reaches brain via
internal carotid
internal carotid arteries give rise to
the Circle of Willis
loops around the optic chiasma
the loop is formed from anterior
and posterior communicating
arteries
from this loop branches the
anterior and posterior cerebral
arteries

the posterior communicating and

cerebral unite to form the basilar
artery
from the basilar artery branches
numerous smaller arteries e.g.
cerebellar and pontine
the basilar then splits to form the
vertebral arteries

Venous blood leaves via internal

jugular veins

The blood supply to the brain

Arterial blood reaches brain via internal carotid, vertebral arteries
Venous blood leaves via internal jugular veins
-transient ischemic attacks (TIA): no permanent neurologic damage
-temporary cerebral dysfunction caused by impaired blood
flow to the brain
-dizziness, weakness, blurred vision, slurred speech,
paralysis
-persists from 5 to 50 minutes
-caused by emboli (blood clots), atherosclerosis
-cerebral vascular accident (CVA): stroke
-affects 500,000 people per year
-third leading cause of death
-permanent cerebral dysfunction caused by impaired blood
flow to the brain
-sudden onset of symptoms
-caused by cerebral hemorrhage (anuerysm), blood clot, atherosclerosis
-treatment rapid administration of clot-dissolving drugs (e.g. tPA) if stroke
is caused by a clot

Alzheimers Disease
-loss or reasoning, memory
-11% of population over 65 (4 million people)
-unknown cause thought to be genetic factors + environmental &
lifestyle
-mutations in 3 genes coding for: prenisilin-1, -2 and amyloid precursor
protein lead to early onset forms (less the 1% of all cases)
-also mutations in gene coding for apolipoprotein E (ApoE)
a protein that helps transport cholesterol in the blood
-brain abnormalities:
1. loss of ACh releasing neurons from the nucleus basalis (below
the basal ganglia subtype globus pallidus
2. beta-amyloid plaques deposited outside of neurons
3. neurofibrillary tangles abnormal bundles of protein filaments
in affected brain regions

-treatments: drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase improve alertness e.g. Tacrine

& Donepezil

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE

SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL
NERVES

Spinal Cord
length in adults = 16 to 18 inches
Cervical and lumbar
enlargements
cervical = C4 to T1, nerves to and
from upper limbs
lumbar = T9 to T12, nerves to and
from lower limbs

Tapers to conus medullaris

filium terminale arises from the
CM - extension of the pia mater that
anchors the SC to the coccyx

31 segments each with

Dorsal root ganglia
Sensory neuron cell bodies

Pair of dorsal roots

Pair of ventral roots

Inferior End of
Spinal Cord
Conus medullaris
cone-shaped end of spinal cord

Filum terminale
thread-like extension of pia mater
stabilizes spinal cord in canal

Caudae equinae (horses tail)

dorsal & ventral roots of lowest
spinal nerves

Spinal segment
area of cord from which each pair of
spinal nerves arises

External Anatomy of Spinal Cord

Some nerves to know
-phrenic
-ulnar
-radial
-medial
-musculocutaneous
-femoral
-obturator
-sciatic
-ilioinguinal
-thoracic (intercostals)

Histology of the Spinal Cord

Central gray matter
Contains cell bodies of neurons and
glial cells + unmyelinated axons
Gray matter projections are horns

Peripheral white matter

Myelinated and unmyelinated axons
Organized as tracts or columns

Organization of Gray Matter

1. Posterior gray horns
Somatic and visceral sensory nuclei

2. Anterior gray horns

Somatic motor control

3. Lateral gray horns

Visceral motor neurons

Gray commissures
Axons of interneurons crossing
cordated and unmyelinated axons

Organization of White Matter

Six columns (funiculi)

Anterior, lateral and posterior

white columns
Contain tracts of myelinated
neurons
Ascending tracts relay
information from spinal cord
to brain
Descending tracts carry
information in the opposite
direction

Spinothalamic tract

Posterior columns

pain, temperature, deep pressure &

crude touch
proprioception, discriminative touch,
two-point discrimination, pressure and
vibration

Direct pathways (corticospinal)

precise, voluntary movements
Indirect pathways (rubrospinal,
vestibulospinal)

programming automatic movements,

posture & muscle tone, equilibrium &
coordination of visual reflexes

rubrospinal midbrain to spinal cord

corticospinal cortex to spinal cord
reticulospinal RAS (brain stem) to spinal cord
vestibulospinal inner ear to spinal cord
spinocerebellar spinal cord to cerebellum
spinothalmic spinal cord to thalamus

 Motor tracts:
lateral corticospinal: cortex to spinal cord
anterior corticospinal
recticulospinal tracts (lateral & medial): RAS (brain
stem) to spinal cord
rubrospinal tract: midbrain to spinal cord
vestibulospinal tract: inner ear to spinal cord
tectospinal tract: tectum to spinal cord
Sensory tracts:
spinocerebellar (posterior & anterior): spinal cord to
cerebellum
posterior column
spinothalmic (Anterior & lateral): spinal cord to
thalamus