HVAC Systems

Basics & Efficiency Improvement

University of Florida

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Functions of HVAC Systems

 The purpose of a Heating, Ventilating and Air

Conditioning (HVAC) system is to provide
and maintain a comfortable environment
within a building for the occupants or for the
process being conducted.

 Many HVAC systems were not designed with

energy efficiency as one of the design
factors.

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Environmental Control Factors

 An HVAC system functions to provide

an environment in which these four
factors are maintained within desired
ranges:

 Temperature
 Humidity
 Air distribution
 Air quality

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Typical Design Conditions

 75 degrees F temperature
 50% relative humidity
 30 – 50 FPM air movement
 15 – 20 CFM outside air per person or
CO2 less than 1000 PPM
Ref: ASHRAE 62 – 1989 Ventilation Standard

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Comfort Zone on Psychometric Chart

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The Principal functions of HVAC systems & controls:

 To maintain comfortable conditions in the

space by providing the desired cooling and
heating outputs, while factors which affect
the cooling and heating outputs vary.
 To maintain comfortable conditions while
using the least amount of energy.
 To operate the HVAC system so as to
provide safety for the occupants and
equipment.

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Temperature Control Strategies

 Vary the temperature of the supply air to the

space while keeping the air flow rate
constant. This is the constant volume,
variable temperature approach.
 Vary the air flow rate while keeping the
supply air temperature constant. This is the
variable volume, constant temperature
approach.
 Vary the supply air temperature and the flow
rate, as in a variable volume reheat system.
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Humidity Control
(Amount of water vapor in the air)

 Humidification – the air is too dry and water

vapor must be added for comfort.

 Dehumidification – The air is too wet and

water vapor must be removed for comfort.

 HVAC systems typically over-cool the air to

remove water vapor, and then may have to
heat the air back up – this is called reheat,
and requires additional energy.

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Classification of HVAC Systems

 HVAC systems are given broad

classifications based on the medium
which is used to transfer heat within
the system. The basic types are:
 All air
 Air – water
 All water

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 All air systems – An all air system supplies only
conditioned air to the space. No chilled or hot water
crosses the boundary between the location of the
central equipment and the conditioned space.

 All water systems – Usually, heated or chilled water is

supplied to the conditioned space and used in fan coil
units and induction units.

 Air-water systems – Air and water are treated in a

central plant and are distributed to terminal units in the
conditioned space

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Primary Equipment

 Chillers

 Compressors

 Boilers

 Furnaces

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Secondary Systems

 Single duct, single zone system

 Single duct, terminal reheat system
 Multizone system
 Dual duct system
 Single duct, variable air volume
system
 Fan coil system; and Heat pump
system
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Single duct, single zone system

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Power and Energy in Air Conditioning

 One ton of A/C = 12,000 Btu/hour

 A ton is a measure of A/C power, and is used

when sizing systems

 One tone-hour of A/C = 12,000 Btu

 A ton-hour is a measure of A/C energy, and

is used when sizing storage tanks for
thermal energy storage (TES) systems
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The HAVC Vapor-Compression Cycle

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Diagram of a Typical Chiller

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HVAC System Performance Measures

 Energy Efficiency Ratio

EER = Btu of cooling output

Wh of electrical input

= Btu/h of cooling output

W of electrical power input

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Coefficient of Performance
COP = Energy or heat output
Energy or heat input

= EER
3.412 Btu/kWh

EER = Btu/h of cooling output

W of electrical power input

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Examples

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Sensible and Latent Heat

 Sensible heat – The heat associated

with a temperature change of a
substance at a constant moisture level

 Latent heat – The heat associated with

the phase change of a substance

 Enthalpy – Total heat content of a

substance
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Heat Balance for a Facility

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Heat Gain From People

Total heat gain for

male adults (Btu/h)
Activity
Seated at rest 400
Seated, writing 480
Seated, typing 640
Standing, light work or slow walking 800
Light benck work 880
Normal walking, light machine work 1040
Heavy work, heavy machine work, lifting 1600

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Types of Chillers

 Reciprocating .……………… Size up to 250 tons

 Rotary screw ……………………… 50 to 1500 tons

 Centrifugal ………….. 75 to 5000 tons or more

 Absorption ………………….……… 10 to 1500 tons

 Gas engine …………………… Size up to 250 tons

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Chiller Rules of Thumb
 Chilled water – average pump flow rate is 2 to 2.5 GPM
per ton of cooling. For every 1 degree increase in CHW
temperature, chiller efficiency improves about 1.5%.

 Condenser water – average pump flow rate is 3 to 3.5

GPM per ton of cooling. For every 1 degree decrease in
CW temperature, chiller efficiency increases about
1.5%.

 Recent recommendations are to run some chillers with

a condenser water flow rate of only 2 to 2.5 GPM, and
operate with a bigger ∆ T on the cooling tower.

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System Improvement Options
 Replace old chiller: possibly downsize chiller
 Consider multiple chillers: Consider installing
a small chiller
 Use ASDs on pumps, cooling towers, and
chillers.
 Use LRP modification
 Use heat recovery
 Use ozonation of cooling tower water, etc.

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 Cooling Towers
Forced draft
counter-flow tower
XXXXXXXXXXXXX Hot Water

Natural draft

...
…
…
…
…
Filling

XXXXXXXXXXXXX Centrifugal Fan

Hot Water
Cold Water

 Induced draft
counter-flow tower
Cold Water

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Absorption Chillers
 Absorption chillers can produce large quantities of
chilled water using very little electric power and
energy. Their prime energy source is heat from hot
water or steam.

 Absorption chillers have no CFCs. Most absorption

cycles use either ammonia and water or lithium
bromide and water.

 Absorption chillers are not very efficient.

Single stage systems – COPs about 0.6-0.8
Two-stage systems – COPs about 1.0-1.2

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The Absorption Cycle

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Gas Driven Chillers

 Gas engine driven chillers offer significant

electric demand saving, and good part-load
performance.

 Most applications are in areas with high

demand rates and low moderate gas rates.

 In many cases, heat recovery and beneficial

use of the heat is necessary for this
approach to be effective.

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CFC Replacement Status
 No more production of R-11 and R-12 after
Jan1, 1996 – they can still be used, but only
with a refrigerant management program.

 No more production of R-22 after Jan 1,

2010 – maybe OK to use until 2020 or 2030.

 Replacements are HCFC-123 for R-11 and

HFC-134a in centrifugal chillers.

 Most recip & screw chillers use R-22.

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Guidelines for CFC Replacement
Decisions
 Twenty year old chillers have an efficiency of 1 to 1.5
kW per ton, and should be replaced.

 Five to ten year of chillers can be retrofitted – cost may

be about 60% of a new chiller.

 New chillers – CFC free, or near CFC free – are on the

market with an efficiency of .5 kW per ton.

 Consider replacing any chiller that has an efficiency of

above .8 kW per ton.

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Liquid Refrigerant Pumping

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HVAC: 2ND PART

University of Florida

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Basic Heat Flow Equations
Energy losses through walls and ceilings
Q = U x A x DT BTU/hr
Q = U x A x DD/yr x 24hr/day BTU/yr

Thermal insulation

U = 1/ Rtotal Rtotal = R1+R2+R3+R4+…

U values do not add directly

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Degree Days Example
Assume a period of three days when the outside
temperature average 50°F each day
The number of HDD for this three day period would be:
HDD = (65° - 50°) x 3 days
= 45 degree days
The units of seasonal HDD and CDD are: °F days/yr

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Example

A wall has an area of 100 ft2 and has a thermal

conductance of 0.25 BTU/ft2*hr*°F. If there
are 3000 degree days in the annual heating
season, what is the total amount of heat lost
through the wall?
Solution
Q = U x A x HDD/yr x 24 hr/day

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Air and Water Heat Flow
Problems
q (BTU/hr) = M Cp ∆ T

M = Mass Flow Rate (lb/hr)

Cp = Heat Capacity (BTU/lb°F)
∆ T = Temperature Difference (°F)

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Air
q = [CFM x 0.075lb/ft3 x 60 min/hr]
x [0.24BTU/lb°F] x ∆ T

= CFM x 1.08 x ∆ T

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Water
q = [GPM x 8.32lb/gal x 60min/hr]
x [1BTU/lb°F] x ∆ T

= GPM x 500 x ∆ T

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Fan Laws or Affinity Laws
Flow and Speed
CFM 1 RPM 1
=
CFM 2 RPM 2

Pressure (Head) and Speed

2 2
P1  RPM 1   CFM 1 
=   =  
P2  RPM 2   CFM 2 

Power and Flow

3 3
HP1  CFM 1   GPM 1 
=   =  
HP2  CFM 2   GPM 2 
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Example
ACE Industries presently has a 5 HP
ventilating fan that draws warm air from a
production area. The motor recently
failed, and they think they can replace it
with a smaller motor. They have
determined that they can reduce the
amount of ventilation by one third. What
size motor is needed now?

Answer: 0.185 hp

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The Psychrometric Chart
 The Psychrometric Chart is a graphical
representation of the steam tables for moisture
in air at conditions we encounter in HVAC work.
The Psych Chart allows complex problems to
be worked out easily, and provides a feel for
common HVAC processes that we are
interested in.
 The standard ASHRAE Psych Chart has a
horizontal axis for dry bulb temperature, and a
vertical axis for humidity ratio in pounds of
moisture per pound of dry air. Other
parameters on the chart are: relative humidity,
wet bulb temperature, enthalpy, specific
volume, and saturation temperature.
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Psychrometric Chart

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Common HVAC Processes
Air-Conditioning Processes
A Humidifying only
B Heating and humidifying
A

Humidity Ratio
C Sensible heating only
D Chemical dehumidifying H B
E Dehumidifying only
F Cooling and dehumidifying
G Sensible cooling only G C
H Evaporative cooling only

F D

Dry Bulb Temperature

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Heat Example
For air,
q = M x ∆ h BTU/hr
= CFM [ft3/min * 0.075 lb/ft3 * 60
min/hr]∆ h
= CFM * 4.5 * ∆ h (BTU/hr)
Air at 69°F dry bulb and 50% relative humidity flows at
6750 ft3/min and is heated to 90°F dry bulb. How
much energy is required in this process?
Answer: 394,875 Btu/hr

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Problem #3:

On an energy audit visit to the Orange and Blue Plastics

Company, the chiller plant was inspected. Readings on the
monitoring gauges showed that chilled water was being
sent out of the plant at 44⁰Fand being returned at 53⁰F.
The flow rate was 6,000 gallons of water per minute. How
many tons of chilling capacity was the plant supplying?

q =M x c x (Tf – Ti)
=6,000 gal/min x 8.34 lb/gal x1 Btu/lb/F x 60 min/hr x (53⁰F - 44⁰F)
= 27,021,600 Btu/hr x (12,000 Btu/hr / ton)

=2,252 Tons
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Problem #5
Problem: a) What is the air conditioner's SEER?
b) Howmany kWh are used if the unit runs 2,000 hours each year?
c) What is the annual cost of operation if electric energy
costs 7.5 cents per kWh?
d) Howmany kWh would be saved if the unit had an SEERof 9.1?
e) Howmuch money would be saved?
f) Compute three economic performance measures to show
whether this more efficient unit is a cost-effective investment.

Given: Awindowair conditioner is rated at 5,000 Btu/hr, 115 volts, 7.5 amps.
Assume that the power factor has been corrected to 100%.
The lowefficiency unit costs $200, the higher efficiency unit $250,
and each unit lasts ten years.

Solution: a) EER = Btu/h /W

= 5,000 Btu/hr / (115 v x 7.5 a)
= 5.80 Btu/Wh

b) kWh/yr = Running hours per year x Btu/h cooling / (EER)

= 2,000 hr/yr x 5,000 Btu/hr / 5.80 Btu/Wh
= 1,725,000 Wh/yr
= 1,725 kWh/yr

c)
Annual cost = 1,725 kWh/yr x $0.075 /kWh
= $ 129.38 /yr
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Problem #5 cont.

d)
kWh

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