05-01 Genetika Mo

5.
GENETIKA MIKROORGANISME
5. GENETIKA MIKROORGANISME
POKOK BAHASAN
5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation
5.2 Genes: Expression and Regulation
5.3 Microbial Recombination and Plasmids
5.4 Recombinant DNA Technology
5.5 Microbial Genomics

POKOK BAHASAN
I.
DNA as the Genetic Material
II.
Nucleic acids Structure
III.
DNA Replication
IV.
The Genetic Code
V.
Gene Structure
VI.
Mutations and their Chemical Basis
VII.
Detection and Isolation of Mutants
VIII. DNA Repair
KOMPETENSI
1.
membahas perbedaan struktur dan komposisi DNA dan RNA
2.
membahas asosiasi protein dengan DNA dan membedakan asosiasi

protein-protein dengan DNA pada DNA prokariotik dan eukariotik.
3.
membahas aliran informasi genetik dari DNA ke RNA ke protein, dan

membahas hubungan di antara urutan DNA dan RNA dan asam
amino protein.
4.
menjelaskan replikasi DNA dan proses-proses yang digunakan untuk

meminimalkan kesalahan dan mengoreksi kesalahan-kesalahan
tersebut
5.
membahas sifat kode genetik
6.
mendefinisikan gen dan menbahas elemen-elemen pengaturnya,

seperti promoter and operator
7.
membahas empat bagian gen bakteri (promoter, leader, daerah

penyandi, trailer)
8.
membahas sifat dan penyebab mutasi
9.
membahas bermacam-macam mekanisme perbaikan genetik dan

keterbatasannya

POKOK BAHASAN
I.
II.
Nucleic acids Structure
III.
DNA Replication
IV.
The Genetic Code
V.
Gene Structure
VI.
VII.
VIII. DNA Repair

I.
A. Griffith (1928) demonstrated the phenomenon of

transformation: nonvirulent bacteria could become
virulent when live, nonvirulent bacteria were mixed
with dead, virulent bacteria

I.
B. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty (1944) demonstrated

that the transforming principle (the material
responsible for transformation to virulence in
Griffiths experiments) was DNA

I.
C. Hershey and Chase (1952) showed that for the T2

bacteriophage, only the DNA was needed for
infectivity; therefore, they proved that DNA was the
genetic material

I.
D. Over the past decades the relationship between DNA,

RNA, and protein has been established
1. DNA is the genetic material of cells; DNA is precisely copied
by a process called replication
2. A gene is a DNA segment that encodes a polypeptide, an
rRNA, or a tRNA
3. Genes are expressed when the information they encode is
transcribed, forming an RNA molecule complementary to
the original DNA template
4. mRNA molecules direct the synthesis of proteins; the

decoding of the mRNA information occurs during a process
called translation

I.
DNA as Genetic Material
POKOK BAHASAN
I.
II.
Nucleic Acid Structure
III.
DNA Replication
IV.
The Genetic Code
V.
Gene Structure
VI.
VII.
DNA Repair

B. Nucleic Acid Structure
DNA Structure
DNA is composed of purine and pyrimidine nucleosides that contain the
sugar 2'-deoxyribose and are joined by phosphodiester bridges

DNA Structure
DNA is usually a double helix consisting of two chains of nucleotides
coiled around each other

DNA Structure
The purine adenine (A) on one strand of DNA is always paired with the
pyrimidine thymine (T) on the other strand, while the purine guanine
(G) is always paired with the pyrimidine cytosine (C); thus, the two
strands are said to be complementary

DNA Structure
The two strands are not positioned directly opposite one another;
therefore, a major groove and a smaller minor groove are formed by
the double helix backbone

DNA Structure
The two polynucleotide chains are antiparallel (i.e., their sugarphosphate backbones are oriented in opposite directions)

DNA Structure
DNA is composed of purine and pyrimidine nucleosides that contain the
sugar 2'-deoxyribose and are joined by phosphodiester bridges
DNA is usually a double helix consisting of two chains of nucleotides
coiled around each other
The purine adenine (A) on one strand of DNA is always paired with the
pyrimidine thymine (T) on the other strand, while the purine guanine
(G) is always paired with the pyrimidine cytosine (C); thus, the two
strands are said to be complementary
The two strands are not positioned directly opposite one another;
therefore, a major groove and a smaller minor groove are formed by
the double helix backbone
The two polynucleotide chains are antiparallel (i.e., their sugarphosphate backbones are oriented in opposite directions)

RNA structure
RNA differs from DNA in that it is composed of the sugar ribose rather
than 2'-deoxyribose

RNA structure
RNA differs from DNA in that it contains the pyrimidine uracil (U)
instead of thymine

RNA structure
RNA differs from DNA in that it usually consists of a single strand that
can coil back on itself, rather than two strands coiled around each

RNA structure
Three different kinds of RNA exist: ribosomal (rRNA), transfer (tRNA),
and messenger (mRNA); they differ from one another in function, site
of synthesis in eucaryotic cells, and structure

RNA structure
RNA differs from DNA in that it is composed of the sugar ribose rather
than 2'-deoxyribose
RNA differs from DNA in that it contains the pyrimidine uracil (U)
instead of thymine
RNA differs from DNA in that it usually consists of a single strand that
can coil back on itself, rather than two strands coiled around each other
Three different kinds of RNA exist: ribosomal (rRNA), transfer (tRNA),

and messenger (mRNA); they differ from one another in function, site
of synthesis in eucaryotic cells, and structure

The organization of DNA in cells

In procaryotes, the DNA exists as a closed circular, supercoiled
molecule associated with basic (histonelike)


In eucaryotes, the DNA is more highly organized; it is associated with
basic (histone) proteins and is coiled into repeating units known as
nucleosomes

II. Nucleic Acid Structure

In procaryotes, the DNA exists as a closed circular, supercoiled
molecule associated with basic (histonelike) proteins
In eucaryotes, the DNA is more highly organized; it is associated with
basic (histone) proteins and is coiled into repeating units known as
nucleosomes

II.
POKOK BAHASAN
I.
II.
III.
DNA Replication
IV.
The Genetic Code
V.
Gene Structure
VI.
VII.
DNA Repair

III. DNA Replication
Pattern of DNA synthesis

DNA replication is semiconservative:
each strand of DNA is conserved, but the two strands are
separated from each other and
serve as templates for the production of another strand
according to the base-pairing rules discussed earlier

Replication forks are the areas of the DNA molecule where this strand
separation occurs and the synthesis of new DNA takes place


A replicon consists of an origin of replication and the DNA that is
replicated as a unit from that origin


The bacterial chromosome is usually a single replicon


Small closed circular DNA molecules, such as plasmids and some virus
genomes, replicate by means of a rolling-circle mechanism


The large linear DNA molecules of eucaryotes employ multiple replicons
to efficiently replicate the relatively large molecules within a reasonable
time span


1. DNA replication is semiconservative: each strand of DNA is conserved,
but the two strands are separated from each other and serve as
templates for the production of another strand (according to the basepairing rules discussed earlier)
2. Replication forks are the areas of the DNA molecule where this strand
separation occurs and the synthesis of new DNA takes place
3. A replicon consists of an origin of replication and the DNA that is
replicated as a unit from that origin
4. The bacterial chromosome is usually a single replicon
5. Small closed circular DNA molecules, such as plasmids and some virus
genomes, replicate by means of a rolling-circle mechanism
6. The large linear DNA molecules of eucaryotes employ multiple
replicons to efficiently replicate the relatively large molecules within a
reasonable time span

Mechanism of DNA replication-as observed in E. coli

1. DnaA protein binds to the origin of replication


2. Helicases unwind the two strands of DNA and as they do so
topoisomerases (e.g., DNA gyrase) relieve the tension caused by
the unwinding process


3. Single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSBs) keep the single
strands apart


4. Primases synthesize a small RNA molecule (approximately 10
nucleotides) that will act as a primer for DNA synthesis


5. DNA polymerase III synthesizes the complementary strand of
DNA according to the base-pairing rules; on one strand (the
leading strand), synthesis is continuous, while on the other (the
lagging strand), a series of fragments are generated by
discontinuous synthesis; a multiprotein complex called a
replisome organizes all of these processes


6. DNA polymerase I removes the primers and fills the gaps that
result from the RNA deletion


7. DNA ligases join the DNA fragments to form a complete strand
of DNA


8. DNA replication is extraordinarily complex; at least 30 proteins
are required to replicate the E. coli chromosome


9. The rate of DNA synthesis is 750 to 1,000 base pairs per second
in procaryotes, and 50 to 100 base pairs per second in
eucaryotes


1. DnaA protein binds to the origin of replication
2. Helicases unwind the two strands of DNA and as they do so
topoisomerases (e.g., DNA gyrase) relieve the tension caused by the
unwinding process
3. Single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSBs) keep the single strands
apart
4. Primases synthesize a small RNA molecule (approximately
nucleotides) that will act as a primer for DNA synthesis
10
5. DNA polymerase III synthesizes the complementary strand of DNA

according to the base-pairing rules; on one strand (the leading strand),
synthesis is continuous, while on the other (the lagging strand), a series
of fragments are generated by discontinuous synthesis; a multiprotein
complex called a replisome organizes all of these processes
6. DNA polymerase I removes the primers and fills the gaps that result
from the RNA deletion
7. DNA ligases join the DNA fragments to form a complete strand of DNA

III.
DNA Replication
POKOK BAHASAN
I.
II.
III.
DNA Replication
IV.
The Genetic Code
V.
Gene Structure
VI.
VII.
DNA Repair

IV. The Genetic Code
1. For polypeptide-coding genes, the DNA base sequence
corresponds to the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide
(colinearity)

2. Establishment of the genetic code-each codon that specifies
a particular amino acid must be three bases long for each of
the 20 amino acids to have at least one codon; thus the
genetic code consists of 64 codons

3. Organization of the code
Degeneracy-many amino acids are encoded by more than one
codon
Sense codons-61 codons that specify amino acids
Stop (nonsense) codons-three codons (UGA, UAG, UAA) that
do not specify an amino acid, and that are used as translation
(protein synthesis) termination signals
Wobble-describes the somewhat loose base pairing of a tRNA
anticodon to the mRNA codon; wobble eliminates the need
for a unique tRNA for each codon because the first two
positions are sufficient to establish hydrogen bonding
between the mRNA and the aminoacyl-tRNAs

IV.
The Genetic Code
POKOK BAHASAN
I.
II.
III.
DNA Replication
IV.
The Genetic Code
V.
Gene Structure
VI.
VII.
VIII. DNA Repair

IV. Gene Structure
Gene: a linear sequence of nucleotides that is within the
genomic nucleic acid molecule, and that has a fixed start
point and end point
1.
Encodes a polypeptide, a tRNA, or an rRNA
2.
Has controlling elements (e.g., promoters) that regulate

expression of a gene; may be considered as part of the gene
itself, or they may be considered as separate regulatory
sequences
3.
With some exceptions, genes are not overlapping
4.
The segment that encodes a single polypeptide is also called a

cistron
5.
In procaryotes-coding information is normally continuous

although some bacterial genes are interrupted; in eucaryotesmost genes have coding sequences (exons) that are interrupted
by noncoding sequences (introns)

IV. Gene Structure
Genes that code for proteins
1.
Template strand-the one strand that contains coding information

and directs RNA synthesis
2.
Promoter-a sequence of bases that is usually situated upstream

from the coding region; serves as a recognition/binding site for
RNA polymerase
a.
Recognition site-site of initial association with RNA polymerase (35 bases

upstream of transcription initiation site)
b.
Binding site (Pribnow box)-sequence that favors DNA unwinding before

transcription begins (approximately 10 bases upstream of transcription
initiation site)
c.
Consensus sequences-idealized base sequences found most often when

comparing the sequences of different bacteria

IV. Gene Structure
Genes that code for proteins
3.
Leader sequence-a transcribed sequence that is not translated;

contains a consensus sequence known as the Shine-Dalgarno
sequence, which serves as the recognition site for the ribosome
4.
Coding
region-the
sequence
that
begins
immediately
downstream of the leader sequence; starts with the template
sequence 3'TAC5', which gives rise to mRNA codon 5'AUG3', the
first translated codon (specifies N-formylmethionine in bacteria,
methionine in archaea and eucaryotes)
5.
Trailer region-nontranslated region located immediately

downstream of the translation terminator sequence and before
the transcription terminator
6.
Regulatory sites-sites where DNA-recognizing regulatory

proteins bind to either stimulate or inhibit gene expression

IV. Gene Structure
Genes that code for tRNA and rRNA
1.
tRNA genes-promoters, leaders, coding regions, and trailer

regions are found; noncoding regions are removed after
transcription; more than one tRNA may be made from a single
transcript; the tRNAs are separated by a noncoding spacer
region, which is removed after transcription
2.
rRNA genes-have promoters, leaders, coding regions and trailer

regions; all rRNA molecules are transcribed as a single large
transcript, which is cut up after transcription, yielding the final
rRNA products

V.
Gene Structure
POKOK BAHASAN
I.
II.
IV.
The Genetic Code
V.
Gene Structure
VI.
VII. DNA Repair

VI. Mutations and their Chemical Basis
Mutation-a stable, heritable change in the genomic nucleotide
sequence

Mutations and mutagenesis
1. Mutations can alter phenotype
a.
Morphological mutations-result in changes in colony or cell morphology
b.
Lethal mutations-result in death of the organism
c.
Conditional
conditions
d.
Biochemical mutations-result in changes in the metabolic capabilities of a cell
e.
mutations-are
expressed
only
under
certain
environmental
1)
Auxotrophs-cannot grow on minimal media because they have lost a biosynthetic

capability; require supplements
2)
Prototrophs-can grow on minimal media
Resistance mutations-result in acquired resistance to some

pathogen, chemical, or antibiotic
2. Mutations can arise spontaneously or can be induced by a mutagen

3. It is widely held that spontaneous mutations occur randomly and are then
selected; however, one hypothesis holds that some mutations are
directed or adaptive mutations that may be the result of hypermutation
followed by selection of favorable mutations

Spontaneous mutations
1.
Arise occasionally in all cells without exposure to external

agents; they are often the result of errors in replication
2.
Errors in replication can occur due to tautomeric shifts, which

cause base pair substitutions; other errors can lead to
frameshifts
a.
Transition-substitution of one purine for another, or of one pyrimidine for

another
b.
Transversion-substitution of a purine for a pyrimidine or vice versa
c.
Frameshift-often the result of the deletion of nucleotides, which results in an

altered codon reading frame
3.
Lesions in the structure of DNA can cause spontaneous mutations

(e.g., loss of a nitrogenous base)
4.
Insertion of DNA segments (e.g., insertion sequences and

transposons) can cause spontaneous mutations

Induced mutations-caused by mutagens that damage DNA or
alter its chemistry
1.
Base analogs are incorporated into DNA during replication and

exhibit base-pairing properties different from the bases they
replace
2.
Specific mispairing occurs when a mutagen changes a bases

structure and thereby alters its pairing characteristics (e.g.,
alkylating agents)
3.
Intercalating agents, which become inserted between the

stacked bases of the helix, distort the DNA and thus induce
single nucleotide pair insertions or deletions that can lead to
frameshifts
4.
Many mutagens (e.g., UV radiation, ionizing radiation, some

carcinogens) can severely damage DNA so that it cannot act as
a replication template; this would be lethal without the repair
mechanisms to restore the DNA; however, the repair
mechanisms are error prone, which also leads to mutations

The expression of mutations
1.
Forward mutation-a conversion from the most prevalent gene

form (wild type) to a mutant form
2.
Reversion-a second mutation that makes the mutant appear to

be a wild type again
a.
Back mutation-conversion of the mutant nucleotide sequence back

to the wild type sequence
b.
Suppressor mutation-a reestablishment of the wild type phenotype

by a second mutation that overcomes the effect of the first
mutation; can be in the same gene or a different gene, but does not
restore the original sequence
3.
Forward mutation-a conversion from the most prevalent gene

form (wild type) to a mutant form
4.
Reversion-a second mutation that makes the mutant appear to

be a wild type again

The expression of mutations
3.
4.
Point mutations-affect only one base pair and are more

common than large deletions or insertions
a.
Silent mutations are alterations of the base sequence that do not

alter the amino acid sequence of the protein because of code
degeneracy
b.
Missense mutations are alterations of the base sequence that result

in the incorporation of a different amino acid in the protein; at the
level of protein function, the effect may range from complete loss of
activity, to no change in activity at all
c.
Nonsense mutations are alterations that produce a translation

termination codon, which results in premature termination of the
protein during synthesis; location of the mutation within the
protein will determine the extent of change in function
d.
Frameshift mutations are insertions or deletions of one or two base

pairs that thereby alter the reading frame
Mutations can also occur in regulatory sequences and in tRNA

and rRNA genes; all can give observable phenotypes

1.
2.
Mutant Detection
a.
Visual observation of changes in colony characteristics
b.
Auxotrophic mutants (i.e., those which have lost the ability to

synthesize a particular end product and which therefore require its
presence in the growth medium) can be detected by replica plating
on media with and without the growth factor; mutants are those
growing with the factor but not without it
Mutant selection-achieved by finding the environmental

condition in which the mutant will grow but the wild type will
not (useful for isolating auxotrophic revertants and resistance
mutants)

3.
Carcinogenicity testing
a.
Many cancer-causing agents (carcinogens) are also mutagens
b.
Tests for mutagenicity are used as a screen for carcinogenic

potential
c.
The Ames test is a widely used mutagenicity test; it detects an

increase in reversion of special strains of Salmonella typhimurium
from histidine auxotrophy to prototrophy after exposure to a
potential carcinogen

VII. Mutations and their Chemical Basis
POKOK BAHASAN
I.
II.
IV.
The Genetic Code
V.
Gene Structure
VI.
VII. DNA Repair

VII. DNA Repair
A. Excision repair
a.
Corrects damage that causes distortions of DNA (e.g., thymine dimers,

apurinic or apyrimidinic sites, damaged or unnatural DNA)
b.
The damaged area is excised, producing a single-stranded gap, and

then the gap is filled in by DNA polymerase I and DNA ligase
B. Removal of lesions-reverses damage without removing and

replacing bases; although this process is error free, it is
limited to the repair of certain kinds of damage (e.g.,
photoreactivation to remove thymine dimers)

VII. DNA Repair
C. Postreplication repair-mismatch repair system detects
mismatched base pairs in newly synthesized DNA; these are
removed and replaced by the action of DNA polymerase I
and DNA ligase
1.
Restores DNA that has damage in both strands by recombination with an

undamaged molecule, if available (this frequently occurs in rapidly
dividing cells where there is another copy of the chromosome not yet
parceled out to a daughter cell)
2.
SOS repair is a type of recombination repair; it is used to repair excessive

damage that halts replication; it is an error-prone process that results in
many mutations
Chapter Web Links

Understanding Gene Testing
(http://rex.nci.nih.gov/behindthenews/ugt/ugtframe.htm)
Understanding Gene Testing - tutorial from the National Cancer
Institute
Graphics Gallery
(http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/#Anchor-Genetics35326)
Graphics Gallery - click on From Genes to Function for a series of
labeled diagrams with explanations.
Biotech Chronicles
(http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG)
Konsep-konsep yang akan dipelajari dalam pokok

bahasan ini meliputi:
1.
Dua macam asam nukleat, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) dan RNA

(ribonucleic acid), berbeda komposisi dan struktur kimianya. Pada
sel prokariotik dan eukariotik, DNA berfungsi sebagai penyimpan
informasi genetik.
2.
DNA berasosiasi dengan protein-protein basa di dalam sel. Pada

eukariot, DNA berasosiasi dengan protein-protein histon khusus,
sedangkan pada prokariot, DNA berasosiasi dengan proteinprotein non histone.
3.
Gen adalah urutan nukleotida yang menyandi polipeptida, tRNA,

atau rRNA. Elemen-elemen pengendali seperti promoter dan
operator seringkali dianggap sebagai bagian gen.
4.
Sebagian besar gen mempunyai sekurang-kurangnnya empat

bagian utama, masing-masing dengan fungsi berbeda, promoter,
leader, daerah penyandi, and trailers.
Konsep-konsep yang akan dipelajari dalam pokok bahasan ini

meliputi:
5.
Replikasi DNA adalah proses sangat rumit yang melibatkan

sejumlah protein dan tahapan. Replikasi dirancang untuk dapat
berlangsung cepat, tepat, dan dapat diperbaiki ketika kesalahan
terjadi selama proses berlangsung.
6.
Informasi genetik terdapat dalam urutan nukleotida DNA (kadangkadang RNA). Ketika gen struktural mengarahkan sintesis
polipeptida, masing-masing asam amino disandi oleh kodon triplet.
7.
Mutasi adalah stabil, perubahan yang dapat diwariskan di dalam

gen dan biasanya menghailkan perubahan fenotipik, Asam nukleat
dapat diubah dengan bebeberapa cara, dan mutasi ini terjadi
secara spontan maupun diinduksi oleh mutagen kimia dan radiasi.
8.
Adalah sangat penting untuk mempertahankan urutan nukleotida

selalu konstan, dan mikroorganisme mempunyai beberapa
mekanisme yang dirancang untuk mendeteksi perubahan materi
genetik dan memperbaikinya. Often more than one repair system
can correct a particular type of mutation. Despite these efforts
some alterations remain uncorrected and provide material and
opportunity for evolutionary change.
KOMPETENSI
1. menyebutkan the structural and compositional differences
between DNA and RNA
2. menyebutkan the association of proteins with DNA and
describe the differences in the types of proteins associated
with procaryotic and eucaryotic DNA
3. mengetahui the flow of genetic information from DNA, to
RNA, to protein, and mengetahui the relationship between
the nucleotide sequences of DNA and RNA and the amino acid
sequences of proteins
4. mengetahui the replication of DNA and the processes used to
minimize errors and correct those errors which do occur
5. mengetahui the transcription of RNA and describe the
similarities and differences between eucaryotic and
procaryotic RNA transcription
6. mengetahui the translation of proteins and describe the
role(s) of the various components required for this process
KOMPETENSI
7. mengetahui the need for metabolic regulation to maintain
cell components at the proper levels and to conserve
materials and energy.kapan on/of
8. mengetahui regulation by metabolic channeling (localization)
of enzymes and metabolites
9. mengetahui regulation of enzyme activity by reversible
binding of effector molecules or by covalent modification of
the enzyme
10. mengetahui regulation of enzyme activity by feedback (end
product) inhibition
11. mengetahui regulation of enzyme synthesis by induction and
repression of the genes coding for a set of related
enzymes biomol
.. yang penting prinsip-prinsip tersebut
KOMPETENSI
1. menyebutkan the structural and compositional differences
between DNA and RNA
2. menyebutkan the association of proteins with DNA and
describe the differences in the types of proteins associated
with procaryotic and eucaryotic DNA
3. mengetahui the flow of genetic information from DNA, to
RNA, to protein, and mengetahui the relationship between
the nucleotide sequences of DNA and RNA and the amino acid
sequences of proteins
4. mengetahui the replication of DNA and the processes used to
minimize errors and correct those errors which do occur
5. mengetahui the transcription of RNA and describe the
similarities and differences between eucaryotic and
procaryotic RNA transcription
6. mengetahui the translation of proteins and describe the
role(s) of the various components required for this process
KOMPETENSI
7. mengetahui the need for metabolic regulation to maintain
cell components at the proper levels and to conserve
materials and energy.kapan on/of
8. mengetahui regulation by metabolic channeling (localization)
of enzymes and metabolites
9. mengetahui regulation of enzyme activity by reversible
binding of effector molecules or by covalent modification of
the enzyme
10. mengetahui regulation of enzyme activity by feedback (end
product) inhibition
11. mengetahui regulation of enzyme synthesis by induction and
repression of the genes coding for a set of related
enzymes biomol
.. yang penting prinsip-prinsip tersebut

Pokok bahasan ini menyajikan:
1. konsep dasar genetika molekuler;

2. penyimpanan dan organisasi informasi genetik
molekul DNA,
3. mutagenesis, dan perbaikannya.
4. peranan mikroorganisme dalam prosedur
skrining agen mutagenik.
5. pembahasan akan ditekankan terutama pada
genetika bakteria

05-01 Genetika Mo

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5.

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

DNA as the Genetic Material

Nucleic acids Structure

The Genetic Code

Mutations and their Chemical Basis

Detection and Isolation of Mutants

VIII. DNA Repair

membahas perbedaan struktur dan komposisi DNA dan RNA

membahas asosiasi protein dengan DNA dan membedakan asosiasi

membahas aliran informasi genetik dari DNA ke RNA ke protein, dan

menjelaskan replikasi DNA dan proses-proses yang digunakan untuk

membahas sifat kode genetik

mendefinisikan gen dan menbahas elemen-elemen pengaturnya,

membahas empat bagian gen bakteri (promoter, leader, daerah

membahas sifat dan penyebab mutasi

membahas bermacam-macam mekanisme perbaikan genetik dan

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

DNA as the Genetic Material

Nucleic acids Structure

The Genetic Code

Mutations and their Chemical Basis

Detection and Isolation of Mutants

VIII. DNA Repair

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

DNA as the Genetic Material

A. Griffith (1928) demonstrated the phenomenon of

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

DNA as the Genetic Material

B. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty (1944) demonstrated

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

DNA as the Genetic Material

C. Hershey and Chase (1952) showed that for the T2

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

DNA as the Genetic Material

D. Over the past decades the relationship between DNA,

4. mRNA molecules direct the synthesis of proteins; the

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

DNA as Genetic Material

DNA as Genetic Material

Nucleic Acid Structure

The Genetic Code

Mutations and their Chemical Basis

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

Three different kinds of RNA exist: ribosomal (rRNA), transfer (tRNA),

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

The organization of DNA in cells

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

The organization of DNA in cells

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

The organization of DNA in cells

5.1 Genes: Structure, Replication, and Mutation

Nucleic Acid Structure