Chapter 11

Cell Communication

PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

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 Overview: The Cellular Internet

Cell-to-cell communication
Is absolutely essential for multicellular
organisms

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 Biologists
Have discovered some universal mechanisms
of cellular regulation

Figure 11.1
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 Concept 11.1: External signals are converted

into responses within the cell

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Evolution of Cell Signaling

Yeast cells
Identify their mates by cell signaling
1 Exchange of
mating factors.
Each cell type
secretes a
mating factor
that binds to
receptors on
the other cell
type.

2 Mating. Binding
of the factors to
receptors
induces changes
in the cells that
lead to their
fusion.

factor

Receptor

Yeast cell, factor Yeast cell,

mating type a
mating type

3 New a/ cell.

Figure 11.2

The nucleus of
the fused cell
includes all the
genes from the
a and a cells.

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a/

 Signal transduction pathways

Convert signals on a cells surface into cellular
responses
Are similar in microbes and mammals,
suggesting an early origin

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Local and Long-Distance Signaling

Cells in a multicellular organism
Communicate via chemical messengers

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 Animal and plant cells

Have cell junctions that directly connect the
cytoplasm of adjacent cells
Plasma membranes

Gap junctions
between animal cells

Plasmodesmata
between plant cells

Figure 11.3 (a) Cell junctions. Both animals and plants have cell junctions that allow molecules
to pass readily between adjacent cells without crossing plasma membranes.

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 In local signaling, animal cells

May communicate via direct contact

Figure 11.3 (b) Cell-cell recognition. Two cells in an animal may communicate by interaction
between molecules protruding from their surfaces.
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 In other cases, animal cells

Communicate using local regulators
Local signaling
Target cell

Electrical signal
along nerve cell
triggers release of
neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter
diffuses across
synapse

Secretory
vesicle

Local regulator
diffuses through
extracellular fluid

Figure 11.4 A B

(a) Paracrine signaling. A secreting cell acts

on nearby target cells by discharging
molecules of a local regulator (a growth
factor, for example) into the extracellular
fluid.

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Target cell
is stimulated
(b) Synaptic signaling. A nerve cell
releases neurotransmitter molecules
into a synapse, stimulating the
target cell.

 In long-distance signaling
Both plants and animals use hormones
Long-distance signaling
Endocrine cell

Blood
vessel

Hormone travels
in bloodstream
to target cells

Target
cell

Figure 11.4

(c) Hormonal signaling. Specialized

endocrine cells secrete hormones
into body fluids, often the blood.
Hormones may reach virtually all
C body cells.

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The Three Stages of Cell Signaling: A Preview

Earl W. Sutherland
Discovered how the hormone epinephrine acts
on cells

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 Sutherland suggested that cells receiving

signals went through three processes
Reception
Transduction
Response

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 Overview of cell signaling

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
1 Reception

CYTOPLASM
Plasma membrane
2 Transduction

3 Response

Receptor
Activation
of cellular
response

Relay molecules in a signal transduction pathway

Signal
molecule
Figure 11.5

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 Concept 11.2: Reception: A signal molecule

binds to a receptor protein, causing it to
change shape

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 The binding between signal molecule (ligand)

And receptor is highly specific

A conformational change in a receptor

Is often the initial transduction of the signal

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Intracellular Receptors
Intracellular receptors
Are cytoplasmic or nuclear proteins

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 Signal molecules that are small or hydrophobic

And can readily cross the plasma membrane
use these receptors

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 Steroid hormones
Bind to intracellular receptors
Hormone
EXTRACELLULAR
(testosterone) FLUID

1 The steroid
hormone testosterone
passes through the
plasma membrane.

Plasma
membrane

Receptor
protein

Hormonereceptor
complex

2 Testosterone binds
to a receptor protein
in the cytoplasm,
activating it.

3 The hormone-

DNA

receptor complex
enters the nucleus
and binds to specific
genes.

mRNA

4 The bound protein

NUCLEUS

stimulates the
transcription of
the gene into mRNA.

New protein

5 The mRNA is

Figure 11.6

CYTOPLASM

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translated into a
specific protein.

Receptors in the Plasma Membrane

There are three main types of membrane
receptors
G-protein-linked
Tyrosine kinases
Ion channel

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 G-protein-linked receptors
Signal-binding site

Segment that
interacts with
G proteins

G-protein-linked
Receptor

Plasma Membrane

Activated
Receptor

Signal molecule

GDP

CYTOPLASM

G-protein
(inactive)

Enzyme

GDP

GTP

Activated
enzyme

GTP

GDP
Pi

Figure 11.7

Cellular response

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Inctivate
enzyme

 Receptor tyrosine kinases

Signal-binding sitea

Signal
molecule

Signal
molecule

Helix in the
Membrane
Tyr

Tyrosines

Tyr
Tyr

Tyr
Tyr
Tyr

Tyr

Tyr

Tyr

Tyr

Tyr
Tyr

Tyr

Tyr
Tyr

Tyr

Tyr

Receptor tyrosine
kinase proteins
(inactive monomers)

CYTOPLASM

Tyr

Dimer

Activated
relay proteins

Figure 11.7

Tyr

P Tyr
P Tyr

Tyr P
Tyr P

Tyr

P Tyr

Tyr P

Tyr

Tyr

Tyr
Tyr

ATP

Activated tyrosinekinase regions

(unphosphorylated
dimer)

6 ADP

Fully activated receptor

tyrosine-kinase
(phosphorylated
dimer)

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P Tyr
P Tyr
P Tyr

Tyr P
Tyr P

Tyr P

Inactive
relay proteins

Cellular
response 1
Cellular
response 2

 Ion channel receptors

Signal
molecule
(ligand)

Gate
closed

Ions

Ligand-gated
ion channel receptor

Plasma
Membrane

Gate open

Cellular
response

Gate close

Figure 11.7
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 Concept 11.3: Transduction: Cascades of

molecular interactions relay signals from
receptors to target molecules in the cell
Multistep pathways
Can amplify a signal
Provide more opportunities for coordination
and regulation

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Signal Transduction Pathways

At each step in a pathway
The signal is transduced into a different form,
commonly a conformational change in a
protein

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Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation

Many signal pathways
Include phosphorylation cascades

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 In this process
A series of protein kinases add a phosphate to
the next one in line, activating it
Phosphatase enzymes then remove the
phosphates

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 A phosphorylation cascade
Signal molecule

Receptor

Activated relay
molecule

Inactive
protein kinase
1

1 A relay molecule
activates protein kinase 1.

2 Active protein kinase 1

transfers a phosphate from ATP
to an inactive molecule of
protein kinase 2, thus activating
this second kinase.

Active
protein
kinase
1
Inactive
protein kinase
2

ATP

Pi

PP

Inactive
protein kinase
3

5 Enzymes called protein

phosphatases (PP)
catalyze the removal of
the phosphate groups
from the proteins,
making them inactive
and available for reuse.

Figure 11.8
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Active
protein
kinase
2

ADP

3 Active protein kinase 2

then catalyzes the phosphorylation (and activation) of
protein kinase 3.

ATP
ADP
Pi

Active
protein
kinase
3

PP
Inactive
protein

4 Finally, active protein

kinase 3 phosphorylates a
protein (pink) that brings
about the cells response to
the signal.

ATP

ADP
Pi

PP

P
Active
protein

Cellular
response

Small Molecules and Ions as Second Messengers

Second messengers
Are small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules
or ions

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Cyclic AMP
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
Is made from ATP
NH2
N

N
O

O P O P O P O Ch2
O

NH2

NH2

O
Pyrophosphate
P Pi

CH2

Phoshodiesterase

ATP

Figure 11.9

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OH
Cyclic AMP

HO P O CH2
O

P
O

Adenylyl cyclase

OH OH

H2O
OH OH
AMP

 Many G-proteins
Trigger the formation of cAMP, which then acts
as a second messenger in cellular pathways
First messenger
(signal molecule
such as epinephrine)
G protein

G-protein-linked
receptor

Adenylyl
cyclase

GTP
ATP
cAMP
Protein
kinase A

Cellular responses
Figure 11.10
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Calcium ions and Inositol Triphosphate (IP3)

Calcium, when released into the cytosol of a
cell
Acts as a second messenger in many different
pathways

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 Calcium is an important second messenger

Because cells are able to regulate its
concentration in the cytosol
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
ATP

Plasma
membrane
Ca2+
pump
Mitochondrion

Nucleus
CYTOSOL

Ca2+
pump
ATP

Key
Figure 11.11
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Ca2+
pump

Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)

High [Ca2+]

Low [Ca2+]

 Other second messengers such as inositol

triphosphate and diacylglycerol
Can trigger an increase in calcium in the cytosol

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1 A signal molecule binds

2 Phospholipase C cleaves a
to a receptor, leading to
plasma membrane phospholipid
activation of phospholipase C. called PIP2 into DAG and IP3.

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

3 DAG functions as
a second messenger
in other pathways.

Signal molecule
(first messenger)
G protein
DAG
GTP

PIP2

G-protein-linked
receptor

Phospholipase C

IP3
(second messenger)

IP3-gated
calcium channel

Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)

Various
proteins
activated

Ca2+

Cellular
response

Ca2+
(second
messenger)

Figure 11.12

4 IP3 quickly diffuses through

the cytosol and binds to an IP3
gated calcium channel in the ER
membrane, causing it to open.

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5 Calcium ions flow out of

the ER (down their concentration gradient), raising
the Ca2+ level in the cytosol.

6 The calcium ions

activate the next
protein in one or more
signaling pathways.

 Concept 11.4: Response: Cell signaling leads

to regulation of cytoplasmic activities or
transcription

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Cytoplasmic and Nuclear Responses

In the cytoplasm
Signaling pathways regulate a variety of
cellular activities

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 Cytoplasmic response to a signal

Reception
Binding of epinephrine to G-protein-linked receptor (1 molecule)

Transduction
Inactive G protein
Active G protein (102 molecules)
Inactive adenylyl cyclase

Active adenylyl cyclase (102)

ATP
Cyclic AMP (104)
Inactive protein kinase A
Active protein kinase A (104)
Inactive phosphorylase kinase
Active phosphorylase kinase (105)
Inactive glycogen phosphorylase
Active glycogen phosphorylase (106)
Response
Glycogen

Figure 11.13
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Glucose-1-phosphate
(108 molecules)

 Other pathways
Regulate genes by activating transcription
factors that turn genes on or off
Growth factor

Reception

Receptor

Phosphorylation
cascade
Transduction

CYTOPLASM

Inactive
transcription Active
transcription
factor
factor
P

Response

DNA
Gene

Figure 11.14

NUCLEUS

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mRNA

Fine-Tuning of the Response

Signal pathways with multiple steps
Can amplify the signal and contribute to the
specificity of the response

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Signal Amplification
Each protein in a signaling pathway
Amplifies the signal by activating multiple
copies of the next component in the pathway

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The Specificity of Cell Signaling

The different combinations of proteins in a cell
Give the cell great specificity in both the
signals it detects and the responses it carries
out

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 Pathway branching and cross-talk

Further help the cell coordinate incoming
signals
Signal
molecule

Receptor

Relay
molecules

Response 1

Cell A. Pathway leads

to a single response

Response Response
2

Cell B. Pathway branches,

leading to two responses

Activation
or inhibition

Figure 11.15

Cell C. Cross-talk occurs

between two pathways

Response 4

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Response 5

Cell D. Different receptor

leads to a different response

Signaling Efficiency: Scaffolding Proteins and

Signaling Complexes
Scaffolding proteins
Can increase the signal transduction efficiency
Signal
molecule

Plasma
membrane

Receptor

Scaffolding
protein
Figure 11.16
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Three
different
protein
kinases

Termination of the Signal

Signal response is terminated quickly
By the reversal of ligand binding

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