Heating Seminar 09 06

Mini-Seminar
Dr. James Throne, Instructor
8:00-8:50 - Technology of Sheet

Heating
9:00-9:50 - Constitutive Equations
Applied to Sheet Stretching
10:00-10:50 - Trimming as
Mechanical Fracture
Mini-Seminar
Advanced Topics in Thermoforming
Part 1: 8:00-8:50
Technology of Sheet Heating
Lets
begin!
Mini-Seminar
All materials contained herein are the intellectual
property of Sherwood Technologies, Inc., copyright
1999-2006
No material may be copied or referred to in any
manner without express written consent of the
copyright holder
All materials, written or oral, are the opinions of
Sherwood Technologies, Inc., and James L. Throne,
PhD
Neither Sherwood Technologies, Inc. nor James L.
Throne, PhD are compensated in any way by
companies cited in materials presented herein
Neither Sherwood Technologies, Inc., nor James L.
Throne, PhD are to be held responsible for any
misuse of these materials that result in injury or
damage to persons or property
Mini-Seminar
This mini-seminar requires you to have a
working engineering knowledge of heat
transfer and stress-strain mechanics
Dont attend if you cant handle theory
and equations
Each mini-seminar will last 50 minutes,
followed by a 10-minute bio break
Please turn off cell phones
PowerPoint presentations are available at
the end of the seminar for downloading
to your memory stick
Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating
Outline
Fundamentals
Dimensionless Groups - Definitions
Radiation Explained
Arithmetic
Energy Dome
Radiant Heat Transfer Equation
Ditto - Where is the Problem?
Problem Solved! No?
Fundamentals
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
CONDUCTION
Solid-solid energy interchange
Moving thermal energy through sheet
Moving thermal energy, sheet to mold
In very thin sheet, conduction is used to move
thermal energy from heater to sheet through
direct contact
Important Parameters
Thermal conductivity
Heat capacity or Enthalpy
CONVECTION
Fluid-solid energy interchange
Sheet heating (or cooling) during sheet
heating in oven
Free surface cooling in mold cavity
Primary way of heating very thick sheet
Important Parameters
Convective heat transfer coefficient
Air velocity, temperature
Recrystallization, recrystallization rate
Convection heat transfer coefficient values

Fluid
Quiescent air
Air with fan
Air with blower
Air/water mist
Fog
Water spray
h(Btu ft2 hr oF)

0.8 - 2
2 - 5
5 - 20
50 - 100
50 - 100
50 - 150

Biot number
Bi = hL/k
Fourier number
Fo = aq/L2
h
convective heat transfer coefficient
L
half-thickness (heating on both sides)
k
thermal conductivity
a
thermal diffusivity, k/rcp
q
time
r
density
cp
specific heat
RADIATION
Electromagnetic energy interchange at a
distance
Method commonly used to heat all but very
thin or very thick sheet
Important parameters
Heater temperature
Heater and sheet emissivities
Thin-gauge sheet transmissivity
Sheet, heater geometry, spacing
Radiation Fundamentals
Black body, gray body, real body

Emissivity and absorptivity
Energy interchange
Wavelength-dependent energy transmission in
the far-infrared region
Semi-transparency in thin-gauge sheet

Radiation Biot number Bir = hrL/k
Radiation number
Rad = LFFgs/k
hr
radiative heat transfer coefficient
L
half-thickness (heating on both sides)
k
thermal conductivity
F
View factor
Fg
Emissivity factor
s
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Radiation concepts - Explained

Emissivity, e, absorptivity, a, considered
similar
Emissivity = 1, black body
Emissivity between 0 and 1 and wavelengthindependent, gray body
Typical polymer emissivity, 0.90 < e < 0.95
Typical polymer emissivity, e=e(l),
absorptivity, a=a(l)
Thin films semi-transparent, t = t(l)
The Black Body Energy

Curve, Showing
Increasing Energy
Output (logarithmic
scale, left axis),
Shifting of Peak
Wavelength to
Shorter Values With
Increasing Heater
Temperature
So What is Wavelength?
Visible Wavelength of light:
0.4 - 0.7 mm
Near-infrared:
0.7 - 2.5 mm
Far-infrared (most TFing): 2.5 - 15 mm (+)
So What is Wavelength?
Visible Wavelength of light:
0.4 - 0.7 mm
Near-infrared:
0.7 - 2.5 mm
Far-infrared (most TFing): 2.5 - 15 mm (+)
Radiation concepts - Explained

Energy interchange between heater [source]
and sheet [sink]
What you see is what you heat!
Wavelength symbol is l, units are microns
[mm]
For l < 0.38 mm, ultraviolet
For 0.38 < l < 0.7 mm, visible
For 0.7 < l < 2.5 mm, near infrared
For 2.5 < l < 100 mm, far infrared
Most thermoforming, l between 3 and 15 mm
IR scans for thin-gage polymers
Note key 3.5 mm and 8 mm wavelengths
WavelengthDependent
Transmission
Through Thin
Films of
PS
PE
and PVC
[Thank you, Ircon!]
IR scans for thin-gage polymers
Thick - or Heavy-Gauge Heating, Showing

Temperature Profile Through Sheet
Thin-Gauge Heating,
Showing Radiant
Energy Absorbing and
Transmitting Through
Flat Temperature
Profile Sheet
Radiation is extremely complex

Diffuse v. specular surface (textured v.
polished sheet)
Planar v. curved surface (effect of sag)
Effect of pigment (differential energy
absorption at surface)
Radio-opaque v. volumetric absorbing
Internal reflection v. transmission
Reflection, absorption at multilayer interface
What goes on inside the sheet

Reflectivity and
transmissivity of a
thick semitransparent sheet
of plastic
Properties are
determined through
ray tracing
Radiation is extremely complex

This morning we consider only the simplest of
radiant energy transfer, viz, diffuse radiation
from gray body heaters to planar, radioopaque, unpigmented, gray body, single layer,
amorphous sheet
If time, we look at a slightly more complex
situation
Emissivity - What is
it anyway?
Incoming radiation is
either:
Absorbed by the
plastic
Reflected from the
plastic
Transmitted
through the plastic
An ideal material
absorbs all incoming
radiation (a=1)
An ideal material emits
all of its energy (e=1)
That ideal material is
called a black body
Most real materials
have absorptivities,
emissivities less than
one [1]
Plastics, rusty,
oxidized metals have
emissivities of 0.90.95
Conduction Heat Transfer - Assumptions

One-dimensional (thickness)
Transient (time-dependent)
Initial sheet temperature independent of sheet
thickness
Step change in surface temperature
Surface temperature independent of sheet
thickness
Thermal properties independent of temperature
Surface temperature same on both sides of
sheet
Conduction Heat Transfer - Equation

T
T
cp r
= k
q x x
or
T
2T
=a 2
q
x
T(x,q) is instant temperature, q is time, a is thermal

diffusivity, x is distance into sheet
BC1: T(x,0) = Ti
BC2: T(0,q) = To
BC3:
(symmetry about the centerline
T
k
= 0 of the sheet)
x
x =L
Conduction Heat Transfer Dimensionless Equation
Y
Y
= 2
Fo x
2
Y = (T-To)/(Ti-To),
Fo = aq/L2, x = x/L
Convection Heat Transfer - Assumptions

thickness
Surface temperature dependent on thermal
gradient, convection heat transfer coefficient
Environmental temperature independent of sheet
thickness
Thermal properties independent of temperature
Convection condition same on both sides of
sheet
Convection Heat Transfer - Equation

T
2T
=a 2
q
x
T(x,q) is instant temperature, q is time, a is thermal diffusivity, x
is distance into sheet
BC1;
T(x,0) = Ti
BC2:
BC3:
T
= h(T Ta )
x x =0
T
=0
x x =L

of the sheet)
Convection Heat Transfer Dimensionless Equations
Y
Y Y = 0
= 2
Fo x x x =1
2
Y
= Bi Y
x x =0
Y = (T-Ta)/(Ti-Ta),
Fo = aq/L2, x = x/L, Bi=hL/k
Convection Heat Transfer - Graph

Centerline
Surface
Radiant Heat Transfer - Assumptions

thickness
Surface temperature dependent on radiant
heat flux, fourth-power of temperature
differences
Radiant Heat Transfer - Assumptions

Geometric factors independent of sheet, heater
shapes
Radiant properties independent of temperature
Diffuse surface absorption only (radio-opaque)
Radiant boundary conditions same on both sides
of sheet
Radiant Heat Transfer - Equation

T
2T
=a 2
q
x
T(x,q) is instant temperature, q is time, a is
thermal diffusivity, x is distance into sheet
BC1: T(x,0) = Ti
4
4
BC2: T
= sFFg T *h T * s
x x =0
BC3:
T
k
= 0 of the sheet)
x x =L

What is Fg?
Fg is gray body correction factor for non-black

body radiation
If sheet, heater emissivities (es, eh) are <1 and
independent of wavelength, then
1 1
Fg = 1 / 1
e h e s
If eh = es = 0.9, Fg =0.82

What is F?
F is view factor, a geometric parameter
F is the measure of average fraction of energy
transferred from the heater to the sheet
surface
In other words, what you see is what you heat
What do heaters heat?

All visible surfaces
Plastic sheet
Heater reflectors
Other heaters (esp. with transparent sheet)
Pin-chain rails
Heater guards
Objects outside the oven edges
Oven sidewalls, shields, baffles
Sag bands and other sheet supports
The View Factor

Heaters heat what they see!
Heating efficiency - From a given heater
decreases in proportion to the square of the
distance to the sheet, E prop.to 1/Z2
Oven efficiency depends on minimizing energy
transfer to non-sheet - rails, oven walls, etc.

What is F?
Often the view factor is given as a number
(0<F<1)
This is incorrect
We return to an examination of view factor
shortly
Radiative Heat Transfer Dimensionless Equations
Y
Y
= 2
Fo x
2
Y
=0
x x =1
Y
= Bir Y
x x =0
Y = (T-Th)/(Ti-Th), Fo = aq/L2, x = x/L, Bir=hrL/k

hr = radiative heat transfer coefficient
hr = sFFg (Th* Ts* )(Th*2 Ts*2 )
Combined Conduction, Convection, Radiation

Equation with Boundary Conditions
Y
2Y
= 2
Fo x
Y
=0
x x =1
Y
= [ Bi Bir ] Y
x x =0
Keep in mind that these equations assume

temperature-independent physical
properties and equal boundary conditions
on both sides of the sheet

Equation with Boundary Conditions
Parabolic equation with nonlinear boundary
conditions
Two methods of solution
Finite Element Analysis [FEA]
Finite Difference Equations [FDE]

Finite Difference Equation with Boundary
Conditions
Ti ' = Fo (Ti 1 Ti 1 ) (1 Fo )Ti
T0' = T0 2Fo(T1 T0 ) 2Fo(Ta,0 Bi0T0 ) 2FoRad0 (Th*,40 T0*4 )
TN' = TN 2Fo(TN 1 TN ) 2Fo(Ta, N BiNTN ) 2FoRadN (Th*,4N TN*4 )
where 0 and N represent the top and bottom

surfaces of the sheet and where...

Conditions
where
1 e s ,i
1 1 e h ,i
FFg ,i = 1 /
F12
e h,i
e s ,i
Average temp:
Rad i = xFFg ,is / k

F12 is the average view
factor,es is the sheet
emissivity, eh is the heater
emissivity
Tavg
1 T0 TN N 1
=
Ti
N 2
i =1

Conditions
This equation is easily solved using Fortran or
Q-Basic
The calculated time-dependent sheet
temperature is based on an average value for
the energy transferred between the heater and
the surface, viz, a fixed value for the view
factor, F
This result may not apply to many practical
cases
The Energy Dome

Cannot be predicted using average value for
view factor, F
Needs first principles in radiation
[What is the Energy Dome?]
[More importantly, how do you calculate it?]
The Energy Dome

Concept
When a sheet of finite
dimensions is heated
uniformly with a heater
of similarly finite
dimensions
The center of the sheet
is hotter than the edges
The edges of the sheet
are hotter than the
corners

Where is the problem?
The use of a constant value for F, the view factor

Consider the energy
interchange between
differential elements
on the sheet and on
the heater
Here, direction
cosines and the solid
angle radius, r, are
defined

The energy interchange between a heater element
dA1 and a sheet surface element dA2 is given as
q12 = sFg T T
*4
h
*4
s
cosf1 cosf2
A2 A1 r 2 dA1dA2
where cos fi are the direction cosines defined

earlier, and r is the distance between the two
elements

The equation assumes all heater elements have
the same temperature and all sheet surface
elements have the same temperature
The double integral correctly represents the
view factor integrated over all heater elements
and all sheet surface elements

Now replace the differential elements with
discrete elements, A1 and A2
q12 = sFg T T
*4
h
*4
s
A1
A2
cosf1 cosf 2
A1A2
2
r

The terms cos f are direction cosines, and r is
the solid angle radius between each pair of the
difference elements, as defined earlier
For each of the planar heater and sheet
elements, the direction cosines are cos f1 = cos
f2 = z/r
z is the line distance between the two elements

For each of the planar heater and sheet
elements, r, the spherical radius, is given as:
r = x2 y 2 z 2

The direction cosines and the term for r are
now combined in the double summation equation.
When the local sheet and heater temperatures
are also moved inside the double summation, the
following equations obtain...

For the energy transfer from one heater
element to all sheet elements
z2
*4
*4
(Th Ts )A2
q1 2 = sFg A1
2
2
2 2
A2 (x y z )
For the energy transfer from all heater

elements to one sheet element
q
1 2
z2
*4
*4
(Th Ts )A1
= sFg A2
2
2
2 2
A1 (x y z )

These are the new radiation boundary condition
equations
They are now combined with the traditional
convection boundary conditions
And the finite difference equation is solved for
each heater element and each sheet element

As an example, a 7 x 7 matrix heater
interchanges energy with a 7 x 7 matrix sheet
The FDE is solved 49 x 49 times for each time
step
Because the equation is parabolic, no iteration
is necessary

If all 49 heater elements have the same
temperature, the result is the energy dome, as
predicted
Part 1: Technology of
Sheet Heating
The net %
energy
received by
each element
when heater
temps are
equal
everywhere

If the temperatures of the heater elements are
now changed by trial and error so that the
entire sheet heats at the same rate, the
energy dome is flattened
The % values
represent the
local heater
flux output
change from
the original
100%
Problem Solved!
No?
What Assumptions Need to be
Relaxed?
Problem Solved! No?

What Assumptions Need to be Relaxed?
1. Most models assume planar sheet (sheet sags

during heating. Does this affect local heating?
Art Buckel says no. Is he right?)
[Note: cosine geometry gets brutal. The 2D model
has been solved using catenary equations to
describe sheet surface. The 3D model using
parabolic hyperboloid equations to describe
sheet surface has not. Read 4Q06 Tech
Article for additional information.]
Problem Solved! No?

2. Models assume wavelength-independent (and
therefore, temperature-independent) sheet and
heater emissivities
3. Model designed for cut sheet. What about rollfed sheet? (Roll-fed sheet clamped on two
sides, endless, multiple shots in oven)
Problem Solved! No?

4. Convection boundary condition assumes constant
air temperature, constant convection heat
transfer coefficient (in thin-gauge, sheet
start-stop during transit through oven)
5. Model designed for opaque sheet (Semitransparent sheet is heated by volumetric

energy absorption)
Problem Solved! No?

6. Model does not include role of pigment, filler
in sheet heating (Solid particles change thermal
properties, absorption characteristics)
7. Model assumes amorphous polymers, so latent
heat of fusion, phase boundary are not
included
8. For combustion radiant heaters, the role of
the absorption and reradiation of combustion
gases (H2O, CO2) needs to be included
Problem Solved! No?

9. Diffuse absorption, reflection, reradiation from
oven walls, etc., need to be included
10. Most models assume uniform radiant heating,
air environment on both sides of sheet (Radiant
heaters are usually at different temperatures,
air is trapped against underside of sheet)
Problem Solved! No?

11. Model assumes monolayer. Multilayer
laminates involve interfacial reflection and
localized absorption, as well as interfacial
conduction
Okay, give us an example of how just one

of these assumptions can be relaxed!
Number 5
Radio-opacity v. volumetric absorption or

diathermanousity
Beers law: Wavelength-dependent absorption is
exponentially dependent on depth into the
plastic
Primary assumptions: Sheet remains planar; only
diffuse absorption, reflection

Reflectivity and
transmissivity of a
thick semitransparent sheet
of plastic
Properties are
determined through
ray tracing

Transmission is given as
t =e
k 2 d / cosq 2
=e
4k2d / l0 cosq 2
Where k2 is the Beers law absorption coefficient,

l0 is the wavelength of the incident energy and
d/cos q2 is the distance the radiant beam
travels through the plastic in one pass

Reflectivity at the interface of the sheet surface
is usually given in terms of the relative indices
of refraction at the interface
n1 n2
r12 =
n1 n2
r air plastic
1 n plastic
=
1 n
plastic

Reflectivity from the sheet is given as
(1 r ) t 2
Rsheet = r 1
2 2
1 r t
Where r is the reflectivity at both inner and

outer sheet surfaces and t is the transmissivity
of a single pass through the sheet. Note: these
values are wavelength-dependent!

Transmissivity through the sheet is given as
sheet
(
1 r )t
=
2
1 r t
2 2

Absorptivity within the sheet is given as
Asheet
(
1 r )(1 t )
=
1 rt

The general heat conduction equation now includes
a term, q, for volumetric energy absorption:
T
T
rc p
=
ql (T ), x
q x x

Has this problem been solved? Yes, analytically, in
the 1970s [Progelhof, Quintiere and Throne]
for coextruded clear PMMA-pigmented ABS.
The general effect of increasing volumetric
absorption is a flattening of the timedependent temperature profile.
Viz, the instant surface temperature does not

increase as rapidly as with radio-opaque sheet
while the instant internal temperatures increase
more rapidly
End of
Part 1
Technology of Sheet Heating
Part 2
Constitutive Equations Applied to Sheet

Stretching
Begins promptly at 9:00!

Heating Seminar 09 06

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Mini-Seminar

Dr. James Throne, Instructor

8:00-8:50 - Technology of Sheet

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Convection heat transfer coefficient values

h(Btu ft2 hr oF)

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Dimensionless Groups - Definitions

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Black body, gray body, real body

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Dimensionless Groups - Definitions

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Radiation concepts - Explained

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

The Black Body Energy

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Radiation concepts - Explained

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

IR scans for thin-gage polymers

Note key 3.5 mm and 8 mm wavelengths

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

[Thank you, Ircon!]

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

IR scans for thin-gage polymers

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Thick - or Heavy-Gauge Heating, Showing

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Radiation is extremely complex

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

What goes on inside the sheet

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Radiation is extremely complex

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Conduction Heat Transfer - Assumptions

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Conduction Heat Transfer - Equation

T(x,q) is instant temperature, q is time, a is thermal

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Conduction Heat Transfer Dimensionless Equation

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Convection Heat Transfer - Assumptions

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Convection Heat Transfer - Equation

(symmetry about the centerline

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Convection Heat Transfer Dimensionless Equations

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Convection Heat Transfer - Graph

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Radiant Heat Transfer - Assumptions

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

Radiant Heat Transfer - Assumptions

Part 1: Technology of Sheet Heating

hr = sFFg (Th* Ts* )(Th2 Ts2 )