TOPIC 9

POWDER METALLURGY

Compiled by:
Norliana Mohd Abbas
Sources:
1.
Manufacturing Engineering & Technology 5th Edition, Serope
Kalpakjian, Steven Schmid, Prentice Hall, 2006
2.
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes
and System, Mikell P. Groover, John Wiley & Sons (Asia), 2007
3.
MYM Handout 2009

CONTENT

The Characterization of Engineering Powders

Methods of producing metal powders.
Processes used to consolidate and sinter powders
into desired shapes.
Additional processes and finishing operations to
enhance properties.
Materials and Products for PM
Competitive aspects of this unique process.
Design Considerations in Powder Metallurgy

Powder Metallurgy (PM)

Metal processing technology in which parts are produced from

metallic powders

Metal powders are compacted into desired and often complex

shapes and sintered (heated without melting) to form a solid piece.

Usual PM production sequence:

1.

Pressing - powders are compressed into desired shape

to produce green compact

2.

Accomplished in press using punch-and-die tooling designed

for the part

Sintering green compacts are heated to bond the

particles into a hard, rigid mass

Performed at temperatures below the melting point of the

metal

Powder Metallurgy (PM)

Powder metallurgy has become competitive with processes (such as

casting, forging, and machining), particularly for relatively complex
parts made of high strength and hard alloys.

The most commonly used metals in P/M are iron, copper, aluminum,
tin, nickel, titanium, and the refractory metals.

Figure
(a) shows the examples of typical parts made by powder-metallurgy
processes.
(b) Upper trip lever for a commercial irrigation sprinkler made by
P/M. This part is made of an unleaded brass alloy; it replaces a diecast part with a 60% cost savings.
(c) Main-bearing metal-powder caps for 3.8 and 3.1 liter General
Motors automotive engines.

Why Powder Metallurgy is Important

PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or

near net shape, eliminating or reducing the need for
subsequent machining

PM process wastes very little material - ~ 97% of

starting powders are converted to product

PM parts can be made with a specified level of

porosity, to produce porous metal parts

Examples: filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears

Why Powder Metallurgy is Important

Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods can

be shaped by powder metallurgy
Tungsten filaments for incandescent lamp bulbs are made
by PM

Certain alloy combinations and cermets made by PM cannot be

produced in other ways

PM compares favorably to most casting processes in

dimensional control

PM production methods can be automated for economical

production

Limitations and Disadvantages

High tooling and equipment costs

Metallic powders are expensive

Problems in storing and handling metal powders

Degradation over time, fire hazards with certain metals

Limitations on part geometry because metal powders do not

readily flow laterally in the die during pressing

Variations in density throughout part may be a problem,

especially for complex geometries

Engineering Powders

A powder can be defined as a finely divided

particulate solid

Engineering powders include metals and ceramics

Geometric features of engineering powders:

Particle size and distribution

Particle shape and internal structure
Surface area

Particle Shapes in PM
Several of the possible (ideal) particle shapes in powder metallurgy.

Particle Shapes in PM
(a)

(b)

The scanning-electron microscope image of iron-powder particles made

by atomization.
Nickel-based superalloy (Udimet 700) powder particles made by the
rotating electrode process.

Measuring Particle Size

Most common method uses screens of different

mesh sizes

Mesh count - refers to the number of openings per

linear inch of screen

A mesh count of 200 means there are 200 openings

per linear inch
Since the mesh is square, the count is equal in both
directions, and the total number of openings per
square inch is 2002 = 40,000
Higher mesh count = smaller particle size

Measuring Particle Size

Screen mesh for sorting particle sizes

Production of Metal Powders

The powder-metallurgy process consists of the following operations, in

sequence

1.

5.

Powder production
Blending
Compaction
Sintering
Finishing operations

The choice depends on the requirements of the end product.

The microstructure, bulk and surface properties, chemical purity, porosity,

shape, and size distribution of the particles depend on the particular
process used.

2.
3.
4.

Production of Metal Powders

In general, producers of metallic powders are not the same

companies as those that make PM parts

Any metal can be made into powder form

Many methods are available to produce metallic powders

1. Atomization
2. Reduction
3. Electrolytic deposition
4. Carbonyls
5. Comminution
6. Etc

In addition, mechanical methods are occasionally used to reduce

powder sizes

Production of Metal Powders

particle shapes in metal powders, and the processes by which they are
produced. iron powders are produced by many of these processes.

Methods of powder production

Atomization

Atomization produces a
liquid-metal stream by
injecting molten metal
through a small orifice.

Figure show the methods

of metal-powder
production by
atomization:
(a) gas atomization;
(b) water atomization;
(c) atomization with a
rotating consumable
electrode; and
(d) centrifugal
atomization with a
spinning disk or cup.

In centrifugal
atomization, the moltenmetal stream drops onto
a rapidly rotating disk or
cup, so that centrifugal
forces break up the
molten-metal stream and
generate particles.

Iron powders produced by decomposition of iron pentacarbonyl (photo courtesy

of GAF Chemical Corp); particle sizes range from about 0.25 - 3.0 microns
(10 to 125 -in).

Methods of powder production

Reduction

The reduction of metal oxides (i.e., removal of

oxygen) uses gases, such as hydrogen and carbon
monoxide, as reducing agents.

By this means, very fine metallic oxides are reduced

to the metallic state.

The powders produced are spongy and porous and

have uniformly sized spherical or angular shapes.

Methods of powder production

Electrolytic deposition

Electrolytic deposition utilizes either aqueous

solutions or fused salts. The powders
produced are among the purest available.

Methods of powder production

Carbonyls

Metal carbonyls, such as iron carbonyl and nickel carbonyl are formed by
letting iron or nickel react with carbon monoxide.

The reaction products are then decomposed to iron and nickel, and they
turn into small, dense, uniformly spherical particles of high purity.

Methods of powder production

Comminution

Mechanical comminution (pulverization) involves crushing milling in

a ball mill, or grinding of brittle or less ductile metals into small
particles.

A ball mill (Figure b) is a machine with a rotating hollow cylinder

partly filled with steel or white cast-iron balls.

With brittle materials, the powder particles produced have angular

shapes; with ductile metals, they are flaky and are not particularly
suitable for powder-metallurgy applications.

Methods of powder production

Mechanical alloying

In mechanical alloying, powders of two or more pure metals are

mixed in a ball mill.

Under the impact of the hard balls, the powders fracture and bond
together by diffusion, forming alloy powders.

The dispersed phase can result in strengthening of the particles or

can impart special electrical or magnetic properties of the powder.

Methods of powder production

Miscellaneous methods

Other less commonly used methods for making powders are:

1.

Precipitation from a chemical solution

2.

Production of fine metal chips by machining

3.

Vapor condensation
More recent developments include techniques based on hightemperature extractive metallurgical processessbased on the
reaction of volatile halides (a compound of halogen and an
electropositive element) with liquid metals and the controlled
reduction and reduction/carburization of solid oxides.

Methods of powder production

Miscellaneous methods
Nanopowders

Most recent developments include the production of nanopowders of copper,

aluminum, iron, titanium, and various other metals.

Because these powders are pyrophoric (ignite spontaneously) or are

contaminated readily when exposed to air, they are shipped as thick slurries
under hexane gas (which itself is highly volatile and combustible).

Microencapsulated powders

These metal powders are coated completely with a binder. For electrical
applications (such as magnetic components of ignition coils and other pulsed
AC and DC applications), the binder acts like an insulator, preventing
electricity from flowing between particles and thus reducing eddy-current
losses.

The powders are compacted by warm pressing, and they are used with the
binder still in place.

Blending metal powders

Blending (mixing) powders is the next step in powder-metallurgy

processing.

It is carried out for the following purposes:

Powders of different metals and other materials can be mixed in
order to impart special physical and mechanical properties and
characteristics to the P/M product.

1.

2.

Even when a single metal is used, the powders may vary

significantly in size and shape, hence they must be blended to
obtain uniformity from part to part.

Blending metal powders

3.

Lubricants can be mixed with the powders to improve their flow

characteristics. They reduce friction between the metal particles,
improve flow of the powder metals into the dies, and improve die
life.

4.

Other additivesbinders (as in sand molds) are used to develop

sufficient green strength and additives also can be used to
facilitate sintering.

Powder mixing must be carried out under controlled conditions in

order to avoid contamination or deterioration.

Compaction of Metal Powders

Compaction is the step in which the

blended powders are pressed into
various shapes in dies.

The purposes of compaction are to

obtain the required shape, density,
and particle-to-particle contact and to
make the part sufficiently strong for
further processing.

Figure (a) shows the compaction of

metal powder to form a bushing. The
pressed powder part is called green
compact.
(b) Typical tool and die set for
compacting a spur gear.

Compaction of Metal Powders

Pressing in PM:
(1) filling die cavity with
powder by automatic
feeder;
(2) initial and
(3) final positions of
upper and lower
punches during
pressing,
(4) part ejection.

Compaction of Metal Powders

The pressed powder is known as

green compact, since it has a low
strength just as is seen in green parts
in slip casting.

The density of the green compact

depends on the pressure applied.

The higher the density of the

compacted part, the higher is its
strength and elastic modulus.

The reason is that the higher the

density, the higher the amount of
solid metal in the same volume, and
hence the greater its strength
(resistance to external forces).

Miscellaneous compacting and shaping

processes

Powder-injection molding (PIM). In this process (also called metalinjection molding (MIM)).

Generally, metals that are suitable for powder-injection molding are those
that melt at temperatures above 1000C.

The major advantages of powder-injection molding over conventional

compaction are:

1.

Complex shapes having wall thicknesses as small as 5 mm can be molded

and then removed easily from the dies.

2.

Mechanical properties are nearly equal to those of wrought products.

Miscellaneous compacting and shaping

processes
3.

Dimensional tolerances are good.

4.

High production rates can be achieved by using multicavity dies.

5.

Parts produced by the PIM process compete well against small

investment-cast parts, small forgings, and complex machined
parts. However, it does not compete well with zinc and aluminum
die casting or with screw machining.

Miscellaneous compacting and shaping

processes
Rolling

In powder rolling (also called roll

compaction), the metal powder is
fed into the roll gap in a two-high
rolling mill and is compacted into a
continuous strip at speeds of up to
0.5 m/s.

The rolling process can be carried

out at room or at elevated
temperature.

Sheet metal for electrical and

electronic components and for coins
can be made by this process.

Miscellaneous compacting and shaping

processes
Extrusion

Powders can be compacted by extrusion, whereby the powder is

encased in a metal container and hot extruded.

After sintering, preformed P/M parts may be reheated and forged

in a closed die to their final shape.

Superalloy powders, for example, are hot extruded for enhanced

properties.

Miscellaneous compacting and shaping

processes
Pressureless compaction

In pressureless compaction, the die is filled with metal powder by

gravity, and the powder is sintered directly in the die.

Because of the resulting low density, pressureless compaction is

used principally for porous metal parts, such as filters.

Miscellaneous
compacting and
shaping processes

Spray Deposition

Spray deposition is a shape-generation process.

The basic components of the spray-deposition process for metal powders are
(a) An atomizer,
(b) a spray chamber with inert atmosphere, and (c) a mold for producing
preforms.

The mold may be made in various shapes, such as billets, tubes, disks, and
cylinders.

Figure shows the spray deposition (Osprey process) in which molten metal is
sprayed over a rotating mandrel to produce seamless tubing and pipe.

Sintering

Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby increasing

strength and hardness

Usually carried out at between 70% and 90% of the metal's melting
point (absolute scale)

Generally agreed among researchers that the primary driving force for
sintering is reduction of surface energy

Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore size reduction

Sintering Sequence

Sintering on a microscopic scale: (1) particle bonding is initiated at contact

points; (2) contact points grow into "necks"; (3) the pores between particles
are reduced in size; and (4) grain boundaries develop between particles in
place of the necked regions.

Sintering Cycle and Furnace

(a) Typical heat treatment cycle in sintering; and (b) schematic cross section of
a continuous sintering furnace.

Densification and Sizing

Secondary operations are performed to increase density, improve

accuracy, or accomplish additional shaping of the sintered part

Repressing - pressing sintered part in a closed die to increase

density and improve properties

Sizing - pressing a sintered part to improve dimensional accuracy

Coining - pressworking operation on a sintered part to press details

into its surface

Machining - creates geometric features that cannot be achieved by

pressing, such as threads, side holes, and other details

Secondary operations
Powder-metal parts may be subjected to other finishing operations
such as:
Machining: for producing various geometric features by milling,
drilling, and tapping (to produce threaded holes).
Grinding: for improved dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
Plating: for improved appearance and resistance to wear and
corrosion.

Heat treating: for improved hardness and strength.

Impregnation and Infiltration

Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of PM technology

It can be exploited to create special products by filling the available

pore space with oils, polymers, or metals

Two categories:
1.
Impregnation
2.
Infiltration

Impregnation

The term used when oil or other fluid is permeated into the pores of
a sintered PM part

Common products are oil-impregnated bearings, gears, and similar

components

Alternative application is when parts are impregnated with polymer

resins that seep into the pore spaces in liquid form and then solidify
to create a pressure tight part

Infiltration

Operation in which the pores of the PM part are filled with a molten metal

The melting point of the filler metal must be below that of the PM part

Involves heating the filler metal in contact with the sintered component so
capillary action draws the filler into the pores

Resulting structure is relatively nonporous, and the infiltrated part has a

more uniform density, as well as improved toughness and strength

Alternatives to Pressing and Sintering

Conventional press and sinter sequence is the most widely used

shaping technology in powder metallurgy

Additional methods for processing PM parts include:

Isostatic pressing
Hot pressing - combined pressing and sintering

Materials and Products for PM

Raw materials for PM are more expensive than for other

metalworking because of the additional energy required to reduce
the metal to powder form

Accordingly, PM is competitive only in a certain range of

applications

What are the materials and products that seem most suited to
powder metallurgy?

PM Materials Elemental Powders

A pure metal in particulate form

Applications where high purity is important

Common elemental powders:

Iron
Aluminum
Copper

Elemental powders can be mixed with other metal powders to

produce alloys that are difficult to formulate by conventional
methods
Example: tool steels

PM Materials Pre-Alloyed Powders

Each particle is an alloy comprised of the desired chemical composition

Common pre-alloyed powders:

Stainless steels

Certain copper alloys

High speed steel

PM Products

Gears, bearings, sprockets, fasteners, electrical contacts, cutting

tools, and various machinery parts

Advantage of PM: parts can be made to near net shape or net

shape

When produced in large quantities, gears and bearings are ideal for
PM because:

The geometry is defined in two dimensions

There is a need for porosity in the part to serve as a reservoir

for lubricant

PM Parts Classification System

The Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF) defines four classes

of powder metallurgy part designs, by level of difficulty in
conventional pressing

Useful because it indicates some of the limitations on shape that

can be achieved with conventional PM processing

Four Classes of PM Parts

(a)
(b)

(c)
(d)

Class I Simple thin shapes, pressed from one direction;

Class II Simple but thicker shape requires pressing from two
directions;
Class III Two levels of thickness, pressed from two directions;
Class IV Multiple levels of thickness, pressed from two directions,
with separate controls for each level.

Design considerations

Because of the unique properties of metal powders, their flow

characteristics in the die, and the brittleness of green compacts, there are
certain design principles that should be followed:

1.

The shape of the compact must be kept as simple and uniform as

possible.

2.

Provision must be made for ejection of the green compact from the die
without damaging the compact.

3.

P/M parts should be made with the widest acceptable dimensional

tolerances.

4.

Part walls generally should not be less than 1.5 mm thick; however, with
special care, walls as thin as 0.34 mm can be pressed successfully on
components 1 mm in length.

Design considerations
4.

Steps in parts can be produced if they are simple and their size doesnt
exceed 15% of the overall part length.

5.

Letters can be pressed if they are oriented perpendicular to the direction of

pressing and can be raised or recessed.

6.

Flanges or overhangs can be produced by a step in the die.

7.

Notches and grooves can be made if they are oriented perpendicular to the
pressing direction.

8.

Parts produced through powder-injection molding have similar design

constraints as with injection molding of polymers

9.

Dimensional tolerances of sintered P/M parts are usually on the order of 0.05
to 0.1 mm.

Process Capabilities

The process capabilities of powder metallurgy may be

summarized as follows:

1.

It is a technique for making parts from high-melting-point

refractory metals, and parts which may be difficult or
uneconomical to produce by other methods.

2.

High production rates are possible on relatively complex parts

using automated equipment and requiring little labor.

3.

Powder-metal processing offers good dimensional control and (in

many instances) the elimination of machining and finishing
operations; in this way, it reduces scrap and waste and saves
energy.

Process Capabilities
4.

The availability of a wide range of compositions makes it possible

to obtain special mechanical and physical properties, such as
stiffness, vibration damping, hardness, density, toughness, and
specific electrical and magnetic properties. Some of the newer
highly alloyed superalloys can be manufactured into parts only by
P/M processing.

5.

It offers the capability of impregnation and infiltration for specific

applications.

Economics of powder metallurgy

Because powder metallurgy can produce parts at net or near-net

shape and thus eliminate many secondary manufacturing and
assembly operations, it increasingly has become competitive with
casting, forging, and machining.

As in other metalworking operations, the cost of dies and tooling

in powder metallurgy depends on the part shape complexity and
the method of processing the metal powders.

Thus, tooling costs for processes such as hot isostatic pressing

and powder-injection molding are higher than the more
conventional powder processing.

Economics of powder metallurgy

Equipment costs for conventional P/M processing are somewhat

similar to bulk deformation processing of metals, such as forging.

Labor costs are not as high in other processes, primarily because

the individual operations (such as powder blending, compaction,
and sintering) are performed on highly automated equipment.

Thus, the skills required are not as high.

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