Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 44

Assignment:

Semiconductor Device modeling and stimulation

Light Emitting Devices


Submitted to:

Submitted by:
Dr. S B L SACHAN
Professor &Head
ECE Deptt.
NITTTR-CHANDIGARH

Uday Kumar Rai


ECE Deptt.
ME-modular 2014
Roll no.- 141633
1

CONTENTS
1.

2.
3.

4.

PHOTOLUMINESCENCE AND ELECTROLUMINESCENCE


1.1
BASIC TRANSISTION
1.2
LUMINESCENCE EFFICIENCY
MATERIALS FOR OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICE
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED)
3.1
GENERATION OF LIGHT
3.2
LED EXTERNAL QUANTUM EFFICIENCY
3.3
LED DEVICE
3.4
APPLICATIONS
LASER DIODES
4.1
STIMULATED EMMISSION AND POPULATION
INVERSION
4.2
OPTICAL CAVITY
4.3
APPLICATIONS
2

Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence


When excess electron and holes recombine, it result
in emission of photon known as luminescence.

Photoluminescence: Photon emission from recombination


process when excess electron and holes are created by photon
absorption, is called photoluminescence.

Electroluminescence: Photon emission when the excitation of


excess carrier is a result of an electric current caused by an applied
field.
3

Basic transitions
Once electrons-holes
pair are formed, there
are several possible
process by which the
electrons and holes
can recombine.
Fig 1
(a)_ Basic interband transition
(b)_Possible recombination process
involving impurity or defect states
(c)_ Auger recombination process
Fig_1 Basic transitions in a semiconductor

Basic transitions
The recombination shown in fig 1(a) indicate that the
emission of a photon is not necessarily at a single, discrete
energy, but can occur over a range of energies.
The spontaneous emission rate is given as :I(v)v2(hv-Eg)1/2exp[-(hv-Eg)/kT]

Where ,
Eg=bandgap energy
h = planks constant(6.625x10-34 J-s
k = Boltzmans constant(1.38x10-23J/K

Light emission

In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can


relax by emitting light instead of producing heat.

These semiconductors are used in the construction


of light emitting diode and pn junction laser diode.

In these device electrical energy, in the form of a


current , is converted directly into photon energy.

Luminescent Efficiency
All recombination are not radiactive.

An efficient is one in which radiactive transistion predominate .


For all process quantum efficiency is the ratio of radiactive
recombination rate to the total recombination rate. Given by
nq = Rr /R
where,
nq = quantum efficiency
Rr = radiactive recombination rate.
R = total recombination rate
Since recombination rate is inversly proportional to life time,
the quantum efficiency in term of lifetime is given by,
nq = nr /(nr + r)
where,
nr = nonradiactive lifetime
r = radiactive lifetime
7

Luminescent Efficiency
The interband recombination rate of electrons and holes
will be directly proportional to the number of electron
available and directly proportional to the number of
available energy state(holes). Given by
Rr = Bnp

Where,

Rr = band to band recombination rate


B = constant of proportionality

The emission of photons from direct bandgap materials


encounter reabsorption of the emitted photons.
Possible solution to reabsorption is to use hetrojuction
devices
8

Material for optoelectronic devices


Important direct bandgap semiconductor material for optical
devices are GaAs and Alx Ga1-x As.
In Alx Ga1-x As the ratio of aluminum can be varied to achieve
specific characteristics as shown in fig_2
Fig_ 2 shows bandgap energy
as the function of mole
fraction between Al and Ga.
Direct bandgap materials for
0<x<0.45
Indirect bandgap materials
for x>0.45
For 0<x<0.35
Eg =1.424+1.247x eV

Fig_2 Bandgap energy of Alx Ga1-x As


as a function of the mole fraction

Material for optoelectronic devices


Another compound semiconductor for optical device is
GaAs1-x Px
Fig_3 shows
bandgap energy as
a function of mole
fraction x
Direct bandgap
materials for
xx0.45
Indirect bandgap
materials for x>0.45

Fig_3 (a)Bandgap energy of Alx Ga1-x Px as a function of the


mole fraction x (b) E Vs k diagram fo Alx Ga1-x Px for various x
10

LED

11

Light Emitting diode


When a light-emitting diode is
forward biased, electrons are able
to recombine with holes within
the device, releasing energy in the
form of photons.
This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color
of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of
the semiconductor.
12

Light Emitting diode

UV AlGaN
Blue GaN, InGaN
Red, green GaP
Red, yellow GaAsP
IR- GaAs

13

Light Emitting diode


Application of forward voltage across pn junction result diode
current flow.
This flow of current can produce photons and a light output in
the junction diode, which is known as LED.

LED may have a relatively wide wavelength bandwidth of


between 30-40 nm.
This emission spectrum is narrow.
Particular color light will be visible if output is in the visible
range
14

Light Emitting diode


Color

Wavelength
(nm)

Voltage (V)

Semiconductor Material

Infrared

< 760

V < 1.9

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Red

610 < < 760

1.63 < V < 2.03

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)


Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Orange

590 < < 610

2.03 < V < 2.10

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide


(AlGaInP)Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Yellow

570 < < 590

2.10 < V < 2.18

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide


(AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Green

500 < < 570

1.9 < V < 4.0

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN) Gallium(III)


phosphide (GaP)Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Aluminium
gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

Blue

450 < < 500

2.48 < V < 3.7

Zinc selenide (ZnSe), Indium gallium nitride (InGaN), Silicon carbide (SiC) as
substrate, Silicon (Si)

Violet

400 < < 450

2.76 < V < 4.0

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

Purple

multiple types

2.48 < V < 3.7

Dual blue/red LEDs,blue with red phosphor,or white with purple plastic

Ultraviolet

< 400

3.1 < V < 4.4

diamond (235 nm), Boron nitride (215 nm) , Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) (AlGaInN) (to 210 nm)

White

Broad
spectrum

V = 3.5

Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor


15

Light Spectrum
Red, green and blue LEDs

16

Generation of Light
E=c/v = hc/E = 1.24/E m
When voltage applied across pn junction, electron and holes are
injected across the space charge region where they become
excess minority carriers
Excess minority carrier diffuse into neutral semiconductor region
where they recombine with majority carrier
If this recombine process is direct band to band process, photons
are emitted
In GaAs, electroluminescence originates primarily on p side of the
junction as the efficiency of electron injection is higher than that
for hole injection
17

Led external quantum efficiency


Photons can be emitted in any direction.
Emitted photon energy must be hvEg .
Emitted photons can be reabsorbed within the semiconductor
material.
The majority of photons will be actually emitted away from
the surface and reabsorbed in the semiconductor.

Fig_4 Schematic of photon emission at the pn junction of an LED

18

Led external quantum efficiency


Photons must be emitted from the semiconductor to air ie,
transmitted across the dielectric surface as shown in fig_5.
The parameter n2 is is the index of
refraction for the semiconductor
and n1 is the index of refraction for
air.
The reflection coefficient is given
as
= [(n2-n1)/(n2+n1)]2
This effect is known as Fresnel loss
Fig_5 Schematic of incident, reflected and
transmitted photon at a dielectric interface

19

Led external quantum efficiency


Photons incident on the semiconductor-air interface at an
angle are reflected as shown in fig_6.

If the photons are incident on


the interface at an angle
greater than the critical angle
c , the photon experience
total internal reflection.
The critical angle is determined
from Snells law and is given by
c =sin-1 (n1/n2)
Fig_6 Schematic showing refraction and total internal
reflection at the critical angle at a dielectric interface

20

Led external quantum efficiency


fig_7(a) shows the external quantum efficiency plotted as a
function of p type doping concentration.
Fig_7(b) shows the external quantum efficiency as a function
of junction depth below the surface
Both fig. shows that the external quantum efficiency is in the
range of 1 to 3 percent.

Fig_7(a) External quantum efficiency of a GaP LED versus acceptor doping


(b) External quantum efficiency of a GaAs LED versus junction depth
21

Led Devices
The wavelength of the output of an LED is determined by
the bandgap energy.
Direct bandgap material(GaAs)
has a bandgap energy Eg =1.42eV
and =0.873m as shown in
fig_8
The output of GaAs LED is not in
the visible range.
For visible output, the
wavelength of the signal should
be in the range of 0.4 0.72m
and bandgap energy
1.7-3.1eV(approx.)
Fig_8 GaAs diode emission spectra at T=295K and T=77K

22

Led Devices
GaAs1-x Px is a direct bandgap material for 0 x0..45 as
shown in fig_9
At x=0.40, the bandgap
energy is approximately
Eg =1.9eV which would
produce an optical
output in the red range

Fig_9(a)Bandgap energy of GaAs1-x Px as a function of


the mole fraction x

23

Led Devices
The brightness of GaAs1-x Px diode can be varied for
different value of x (mole fraction)
Fig_10 shows the
brightness of GaAs1-x Px
diode for different value
of x
The peak brightness
occurs at red color.
GaAs0.6 P0.4 monolithic
array has been
fabricated for numeric
and alphanumeric
display.
Fig_10 brightness of GaAsP diode versus wavelength
24

Led Devices
when the mole fraction x of GaAsP is greater than 0.45, the material
change to an indirect bandgap semiconductor so that the quantum
efficiency is greatly reduced.
GaAlx As1-x can be used in a hetrojuction structure to form an LED.
Fig_11(a) shows the structure of GaAlAs hetrojunction LED.
Electron are injected from wide bandgap N- GaAl0.7 As0.3 to the narrow
bandgap p- GaAl0.7 As0.3

Fig_11(a)cross section of GaAlAs hetrojunction LED


25

Led Devices
Fig_11(b) shows the thermal equilibrium energy-band
diagram of a GaAlAs hetrojunction LED

The minority carrier


electrons in the p
material can recombine
radiatively.
Since Egp < EgN , photons
are emitted through
wide bandgap N
material with no
absorption.
The wide bandgap N
material act as an
optical window.

Fig_11(b) thermal equilibrium energy-band


diagram of GaAlAs hetrojunction LED

26

Testing of LED

Never connect an LED directly to a battery or a power supply!


It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current
will pass through and burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe
value, for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most
LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less.
Remember to connect the LED the correct way!
27

Tri-color LED
The most popular type of tri-color LED has a red and a
green LED combined in one package with three leads.
They are called tri-color because mixed red and green
light appears to be yellow.
The diagram shows the organization of a tri-color LED.
Note the different lengths of the three leads.
The central lead (k) is the common cathode for both
LEDs, the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the
LEDs allowing each one to be lit separately, or both
together to give the third color.

28

Calculating an LED resistor value


An LED must have a resistor connected in series to
limit the current through the LED. The resistor
value, R is given by:
R = (VS - VL) / I

VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted
If the calculated value is not available, choose the nearest standard resistor value
which is greater, to limit the current. Even greater resistor value will increase the
battery life but this will make the LED less bright.
For example
If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current
I = 20mA = 0.020A,
R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350, so choose 390 (the nearest greater standard value).29

Connecting LEDs in series


If you wish to have several LEDs on at the
same time, connect them in series.
This prolongs battery life by lighting several
LEDs with the same current as just one LED.

The power supply must have sufficient


voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V
for blue and white) plus at least another 2V
for the resistor.
To work out a value for the resistor you must
add up all the LED voltages and use this for
VL.

30

LED Displays

It is a common anode display since


all anodes are joined together and
go to the positive supply.
The cathodes are connected
individually to resistors limiting the
current through each diode to a safe
value.

LED displays are packages of many LEDs arranged in a pattern, the


most familiar pattern being the 7-segment displays for showing
numbers (digits 0-9).

31

Wireless telemedicine
The PillCam is a swallow
diagnostic device, taking
high-quality, high-speed
photos as it passes through
the esophagus.
PillCam transmits 14
pictures/sec. to a receiver
worn by the patient.
This enables diagnosis of
throat disease and related
ailments.
32

PN JUNCTION-LASER DIODE

33

Laser diode
Laser stand for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
Laser diode produces a coherent spectral output with a
bandwidth of wavelength less than 0.1nm.
Laser diode are the modified LED in its structure and
operating condition
There are many different type of laser, one of them are pn
junction laser diode.
34

Stimulated Emission and population Inversion


Fig_12 shows the different process of stimulated
emission and population inversion
Induced absorption: when an
incident photon is absorbed and
an electron is elevated from E1 to
E2
Spontaneous emission: the
electron spontaneously make the
transition back to the lower
energy level with a photon being
emitted.
Stimulated emission : there is an
incident photon at a time when
an electron is in the higher
energy state.

Fig_12(a) induced absorption


(b) spontaneous emission
(c) stimulated emission
35

Stimulated Emission and population Inversion


In thermal equilibrium, the electron distribution in a
semiconductor is determine by the Fermi-dirac statistics. If
the Boltzmann approximation applies, then we can write
N2/N1= exp[-(E2-E1)/kT]
where
N1=electron concentration in energy level E1
N2=electron concentration in energy level E2
E2>E1

In thermal equilibrium
N2<N1
36

Stimulated Emission and population Inversion


In thermal equilibrium (N2<N1)
The probability of an induced absorption event is exactly the
same as that of an induced emission event.
The number of photons absorbed is proportional to N1 and
The number of additional photons emitted is proportional to
N2
In order to achieve optical amplification or for lasing
action to occur, we must have N2>N1. this is called population
inversion.
We cannot achieve lasing action at thermal equilibrium.
37

Stimulated Emission and population Inversion


Fig_13 shows the two energy levels with a light wave at
an intensity Iv , propagating in the z direction.

The change in intensity of z direction can be written as:dlv /dz (3 photons emitted/cm3 3 photons absorbed/cm3 )
or
dlv/dz=N2Wi .hv- N1Wi.hv
where
Wi = induced transition
probability
The equation assume no
loss mechenism and neglects
the spontaneous transition

Fig_13 light propagation in z direction


through a matrial with two energy levels
38

Stimulated Emission and population Inversion


We have
dlv/dz=N2Wi .hv- N1Wi.hv --------------(1)
which can be written as,
dlv/dz =(v)Iv
-------------------------(2)
where,
(v)Iv (N2-N1) is the amplification factor
From equation (2),
Iv = Iv(0)e(v)z -------------------------------(3)
Amplification occurs when,
(v)>0 and
Absorption occurs when,
(v)<0
39

Stimulated Emission and population Inversion


we can achieve population inversion and lasing in a
forward-biased pn hetrojunction diode, if both sides of the
junction are degenerately doped.
Fig_14(a) shows the
energy band diagram of
a degenerately doped
pn junction in thermal
equilibrium.
The Fermi level is in the
conduction band in the
n region and the Fermi
level is in the valence
band in the p region.
Fig_14(a) degenerateely doped pn
junction at zero biased

40

Stimulated Emission and population Inversion


Fig_14(b) shows the energy bands of the pn junction when a
forward bias is applied with photon emission.

The gain factor in a pn hetrojunction


diode is given by:(v) {1-exp[(hv-(Efn-EFp ))/kT]}--(4)
in order for, (v)>1 we must have
hv<(Efn-EFp ) and hv Eg
The population inversion occurs in the
vicinity of the junction.
There are large number of electrons in the
conduction band directly above a large
number of empty states.
If band to band recombination occurs,
photons will be emitted with energies in
the range Eg <hv<(Efn-EFp ).

Fig_14(b) degenerately doped pn junction


under bias with photon emission.
41

Optical cavity
Optical cavity help to achieve the coherent emission output
by causing buildup of the optical intensity from positive feedback.
Fig_15 shows the optical cavity
fabricated by cleaving a gallium
arsenide crystal along the (110)
plane
The optical wave propagates
through the junction in the z
direction, bouncing back and forth
between the end mirror.
Only partial optical wave is
transmitted out of the junction.
For resonance, the length of the
cavity must be an integral number
of half wavelength
N(/2)=L

Fig_15 a pn junction laser diode with


cleaved(110) planes forming the FabryPerot cavity

42

Stimulated Emission and population Inversion


There can be many resonant mode in the cavity, fig_16 shows
different resonant mode
Fig_16(a) shows resonant mode
as a function of wavelength
Fig_16(b) shows spontaneous emission
when forward bias current is applied
Spontaneous emission is relatively
broadband and is superimposed on the
possible lasing mode
Fig_16(c) shows lasing mode which can
occurs at several specific wavelength.
Lasing will initiate when spontaneous
emission gain become more than the
optical losses
Fig_16(a) resonant mode cavity with length L (b) spontaneous curve (c) actual emission modes
43

Radar/Laser Detectors
A radar/laser detector is a combination of a radar detector,
which senses radar in the air, and a laser detector, which looks
for laser beams directed at your car.

A laser beam is a very focused


beam of light that does not
separate out from its beam
path.
Fortunately, there is a lot of
dust and fine particles in the air,
which causes the laser beam to
separate enough that the
beams can be seen by a proper
detector.
44

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi