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Established in the late nineteenth century as an organisation for the new educated professional and commercial
class. Lots of British-loving.
By 1918 Indian political aspirations had advanced- wanted a share in the Government of India. The 1919
Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (dyarchy- in provinces ministries formed with Indians controlling the less important
departments e.g. education, local government and exercise.) fell far short of these aspirations and were rejected
by Congress as disappointing and unsatisfactory.
1918-1923 = transformation of Congress in its political and organizational character. (Gandhi huge role played in
this)
Nagpur Constitution of 1920 made big difference. As did Gandhis leadership of it and the consequent aims and
objectives it took on.- he had confidence from recent successes such as the Rowlatt Satyagraha- his first Indian
mass movement
Gandhi demanded the attainment of Swarajya (total independence) by the people of India by all legitimate and
peaceful means in a year.
Main features of the new Constitution were:
1. Attainment of Swaraj by all legitimate and peaceful means
2. 4-anna membership
3. Provincial Congress committees reorganised on linguistic basis, with a hierarchy of provincial district- subdistrict/town village committees
4. Delegates to Congress sessions to be in proportion to population of a province (roughly one delegate to every
50,000 of a population). Therefore less crowded and more effective
5. All India Congress Committee formed to meet about four time a year
6. Congress Working Committee with about 15 members formed as executive head of the Congress. Permanent
body that met about once a month.
Delegates at Congress
Pre-1920 there was no limit to the number of delegates who could attend the annual and ad hoc special sessions.
Therefore often dominated by those from the local districts and provinces. Rival factions could pack the sessions
with supporters. > Unfair and unrepresentative. (safeguard- usually majority voting but still an issue)
Post- 1920 changed system of delegates. One per 50,000. > made sessions far more representative. Provinces
allocated a quota of delegates according to population.
1923 number of delegates attending had declined dramatically.
1921 Ahmedabad = 4728
1922 Gaya = 3848
1923 Cocanada = 1661!
many Congressmen in prison and demoralisation followed the 1922 collapse of the movement
Membership
Nagpur Constitution 1920 introduced paid membership (voluntary).
Annual subscription of 4 annas.
Hope to provide a significant part of the financial resources needed for Congress works.
Although figures incomplete, were areas where membership strong e.g. Gujarat, Hindustani, Bengal.
1922-23 membership declined, only 106, 046 for 16/20 provinces.
BUT Jawaharlal Nehru said extent of people following not in peoples desire to join but in Congresss capacity to
reach remote villages (funds)
Funding
Gandhi was something of a genius when collecting money (G. Krishnar). Took charge and financial system
changed
Provincial Congress Committees had been very poor and often failed to meet their commitments to AICC
Collected from women, peasants, wealthy friends and businessmen e.g. Seth Jamnalal Bajaj
Tilak Memorial Swaraj Fund set up highly successful
1921 in three months (April-June) collected Rs. 10,000
1921-23 total funds exceeded Rs. 13, 000
Spent as went along (bad experience in S. Africa)
Spent on Congress activity- propaganda, volunteering etc, as well as national education, aid to depressed
classes, famine and flood relief and subsidies to Congress organisations
Minorities:
Faith in general
Women
Women were drawn in
First female delegate in 1920.
1918 = 0.55%
1923 = 3.61%. (still remained a significant minority)
Urban/rural representation
Tried to balance out the number of delegates from urban and rural areas. Did reduce those from towns until in
1921 rural delegates significantly dominated, thereby more true representation of Indian interests as a whole
Leaders
Mostly educated, middle or upper class.
Monopoly of lawyers.
Successfully mixed up the occupational status of its leaders. More representative
Pre-1920 social position secured a leading role in the Movement.
Post-1920 it was the renunciation of social position and the demonstration of willingness to accept sacrifices that
was demanded of those who desired to lead. Gandhi told lawyers that they had to make choice, keep their
Congress position and lose their legal practice, or leave.- therefore got people who were totally committed.
So
Indian National Congress represented a broad national front not a tightly organised party.
Gandhi it is not a party organisation but it developed a structure of authority paralleling that of the British- like a
state within a state. Own uniform (khadi) and operated in Hindu as much as English.
Provided a platform for all parties like a coalition consisting of elements which agreed on general aims and
methods but not always on specific items of policy or program. Forum for debate
Very loose structure, democratic (limits) useful as general aim at this point was the same (in 1920-21 that is.
Later were factions)
Delegates were not bound by Congress decisions (e.g. on sectional aspects such as industrial strikes)
Acquired a very strong executive arm which gave effect to its official policy
Idea became an instrument of its benefactors wholly unfounded (Krishnar)
Alliance was often a fragile one
* Assam. Strong protests. Workers in the tea gardens, demanding higher wages. Rumours of a Gandhi Raj in
which labourers would be given land
* Gujarat (one of the areas most politically active throughout, gave second highest donations to the Tilak Swaraj
Fund). Strong movement in areas in which Gandhi had worked in 1918, and also in rural south. Patidar peasants
to the fore. Bardoli Taluka particularly strong- he was selected in late 1921 to inaugurate official Congress no-tax
campaign (Gandhi delegated) Congress cadres were sent to prepare the area (funding) This was a ryotwaru
areas, with no landholding intermediaries between the peasants and the British.
* Southern Rajputana. Bhil movement led by Motilal Tejawat. Anti-landlord.
* Madras Presidency. Andhra coastal region sees richer peasants refusing to pay taxes (note how rarely poorest
peasants are involved), under belief that Gandhi Swaraj is coming and we shall not have to pay any taxes. In
interior of Andhra, tribal peasants break forest laws > was believed that Gandhi would abolish forest regulations.
* Kerala. Mapilla peasants were inspired by Khilafat to rise. Belief that a new Islamic state is about to be
inaugurated in which there would be no expensive litigation and the present system of police would be abolished.
Turned violent in August 1921 when a police raid on a mosque led to a wide scale violent rising against Hindu
landlords (not good for movement cohesiveness). British lost complete control over two sub-districts for two
months and Khilafat Republics were established. Approx. 600 Hindus were killed and 2500 forcibly converted.
Revolt suppressed harshly, with 2337 rebels being killed and 1652 wounded. 45,000 people taken prisoner.
So not good- Gandhi not happy (although as in 1915-18, did show that was considerable discontent that with the right
organisation, leadership and control could potentially be harnessed.)
-
November, Prince of Wales (future Edward VIII) visited India. Congress boycotted him and there were large
demonstrations. Also some fights between middle and upper class Indians who wished to warmly welcome the
Prince and the demonstrators who did not. This was in Bombay and through the clashes, 20 died.
Gandhi was much disheartened by this (as well as the accumulation of all of the above, and of course, the
Amritsar Massacre of 1919 was still fresh in everyones minds- violence by British. Clearly there was a great
propensity for violence on both sides at this time). Gandhi postponed taking the movement on to its next level of
tax-refusal in Bardoli. And, furthermore, by the end of 1921, Gandhi was having reservations about what he had
set in motion, a sense of responsibility due to the continuing violence. Final nail in the coffin was Chauri-Chaura,
Feb. 1922
Chauri-Chaura 1922
Subhas Chandra Bose (Gandhis biggest rival for leadership of Congress in 1930) said of Gandhis decision;
the Mahatma opens a campaign in a brilliant fashionmoves from success to success till he reaches the zenith of his campaign- but after that he
loses his nerveshortcomings inherent in the movement from the very beginning (what are these?) and which were to reveal themselves more and
more with the lapse of timetoo much power and responsibility was handed over to one manthe promise of Swaraj within one year as not only
unwise but childishno leader worth the name should impose impossible conditions
This is the third time I have received a rude shock when I have been on the eve of embarking upon mass civil disobedience. The first was in April
1919 (Amritsar Massacre, 1516 casualties with 1650 bullets- official figures. General Dyer. ), the second in November last (Bombay, Prince of
Wales visit), and now I am violently agitated by the events in the Gorakhpur District (Chauri-Chaura)The civil disobedience of Bardoli can make
no impression upon the country when disobedience of a criminal character goes on in other parts of the country, both for the same ends. The whole
conception of civil disobedience is based upon the assumption that it works in and through its completely non-violent character. I may be a bad
judge of human nature to believe that such an atmosphere can ever be brought into a vast country such as India, but that would be an argument for
condemning my capacity for sound judgement, not for continuing a movement which is in that case bound to be unsuccessful. I personally can
never be party to a movement hald violent and half non-violent, even though it may result in the attainment of so-called swaraj, for it will not be real
swaraj as I have conceived it (Gandhi in a letter to members of Congress Working Committee, Bardoli, 8 February 1922)
American journalist Web Miller an eye-witness to the beating of satyagrahis with steel tipped lathis. His report
attracted international attention:
Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows. They went down like ten-pins. From where I
stood I heard the sickening whacks of the clubs on unprotected skulls. The waiting crowd of watchers groaned and
sucked in their breaths in sympathetic pain at every blow.
Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing in pain with fractured skulls or broken shoulders. In two
or three minutes the ground was quilted with bodies. Great patches of blood widened on their white clothes. The
survivors without breaking ranks silently and doggedly marched on until struck down. When every one of the first
column was knocked down stretcher bearers rushed up unmolested by the police and carried off the injured to a
thatched hut which had been arranged as a temporary hospital.
Miller's first attempts at telegraphing the story to his publisher in England were censored by the British telegraph
operators in India. Only after threatening to expose British censorship was his story allowed to pass. The story
appeared in 1,350 newspapers throughout the world and was read into the official record of the United States
Senate by Senator John J. Blaine
Patel watched the massacre and remarked:
All hope of reconciling India with the British Empire is lost forever. I can understand any government's taking
people into custody and punishing them for breaches of the law, but I cannot understand how any government that
calls itself civilized could deal as savagely and brutally with non-violent, unresisting men as the British have this
morning."
In response to the beatings and the press coverage, Lord Irwin, Viceroy of India, wrote to King George:
The police for a long time tried to refrain from action. After a time this became impossible, and they had to resort
to sterner methods. A good many people suffered minor injuries in consequence
1931
Gandhi felt the focus for the campaigns next phase should remain salt. Should include boycotts of foreign cloth and liquor. Should
discourage not paying taxes or breaking forest regulations because these not inherently unjust like the salt
May 14 and 22, Congress volunteers attempted march on Hazratganj (Lucknow) - Congress claimed some killed. Lucknow did not win
right to march through the street that signified British power, but it forced Raj to abandom the fiction that imperial rule anything but
government at gunpoint
Bombay city salt satyagraha and cloth picketing were everywhere. Volunteers took over the streets- large, well organised marches
Congress had identified an issue that had personal meaning to the people and was a symbol for the general injustice of the British
Chittagong, Bengal, terrorists barged their way into and sacked a campaign begun in the spirit of ahimsa (and armoury raid)
Northwest Frontier, Muslim Pathans, Abdul Ghaffar Khan- picketed liquor stores. Soldiers opened fire, killed 65.
Local officials stepped into the fore when Congress leaders arrested
Large scale concentrations of protestors eg Dharasana and Lucknow made people vulnerable to attack so Congress emphasised smallscale dispersed actions eg boycotts
Underground journals etc when government confiscated printing presses
Withholding payments occurred, over land revenue- Patidars. Moved possessions across border (so crack-down British couldnt get
them). Resistance to land revenue also took hold in U.P sharp agricultural prices decline second half of 1930
Was breaking of forest legislation eg by Gond and Korku tribe people
Rural civil disobedience more difficult for Congress to control- always behnd the curve and struggled to direct and check violence
Bombay climax, 12 Dec. Picketers laid in strret to block truicks carrying foreign goods, young volunteer killed.
Madras City, Calcutta, Congress employed similar techniques
Boycotts huge impact
Huge strain on police> after Amritsar British reluctant to use soldiers
Sporadic involvement though couldnt not be, without Muslim involvement eg Punjab and the Sind little trouble for British (Muslim
majority) > only 1152/29,000 prisoners in jail for civil disobedience offences in November were Muslims (were smaller percentage of
population though- see Congress slides)
Class divisions too starkly apparent > mostly middle, few very poor peasants
Second half of 1930 Congress debilitated. Arrest forced leadership to hand initiative to provincial committees, which repression disrupted,
and breakdown of central and provincial control eroded non-violent discipline. The more that civil disobedience sprang from local
grievances rather than from strategic intent, the more it was likely to stray from the non-violent standard
Violence
Others were clearly not so convinced. Wanted vengeance for Amritsar, general
conditions under British rule an violent repression.
Bande Mataram (a Congress Extremist) stated;
peaceful means can succeed only when these imply the ugly alternative of
more troublesome and fearful methods, recourse to which the failure of peaceful
attempts must inevitably lead to
Gandhi claimed to admire and adore terrorists patriotism and giving of their
lives to the cause for it had much sacrifice to its credit but he felt that their
methods were wrong and were more a hindrance than an advantage
There were violent acts being carried out during this period of mass non-violent
resistance too perhaps Gandhi felt if signed the pact would give a bit of hope
and pull people back to non-violence (by this stage had accepted that some
chose to follow his satyagraha not for a way of life but for political expedience)
So what violence was there?
Numerous sporadic small cases. Also the Chittagong Armoury Raid of 1930 as
well as various revenge killings
Chittagong Armoury Raid
Attempt on April 18, 1930 to raid the armoury of police and auxiliary forces from
Chittagong by revolutionary freedom fighters led by Surya Sen
Believed in armed uprisings for Indian independence
Armoury was captured as planned, couldnt locate the ammunition but
succeeded in dislocating telephone and telegraph communications and
disrupting trains
Total of 65 revolutionaries took part (not much when compared to Gandhi and
Congress Movement of this year)
Military salute, raised National Flag
Police traced some of the revolutionaries hiding in Jalalabad hills on outskirts of
Chittagong (April 22)
Over 80 British and 12 revolutionaries killed in ensuing gunfire
Sen arrested February 1933. Tried and hung, January 1934
General Violence
During 1930-32 22 officials and 220 non-officials were killed in separate
incidents by such pro-violent groups, organisations, and individuals
This time, Gandhi had vowed not to call off the campaign due to violence
Violence always present, even in 1940s such as in 1942
Chandrashekar Azad
Bhagat Singh
Aftermath of 1930-31
Mid-1930s civil disobedience suspended and raj still in place = Indian nationalists new course
Gandhi continued as unifying symbol, when demanded, stepped briefly onto political stage but mainly focused on
constructive work such as liberating the untouchables, and women, promiting village industries, reforming
education and sanitation etc
Congress kept aiming for Indian independence, but after reforms of 1935 which expanded the electorate and
enhanced the role of elected provincial legislatures (so was some lee-way as Gandhi had anticipated with the
Delhi Pact) so its leaders turned to working within the system rather than as a separate entity outside of it.
Parlayed its popular influence into votes.
World War II ended this participation. Oct 1939 Congress ordered the resignation of its provincial ministers, and
moved once more into outright opposition (war without consulting any Indian representatives and refused to meet
nationalist demands as a reward for loyalty)
1942 Quit India resolution triggered a mostly spontaneous and violent popular rebellion, almost 100,000 arrested
and over 1000 killed. Outside India, Subhas Chandra Bose raised the INA (Indian National Army) and fought the
British alongside the Japanese
For the British, during the war the police had slipped badly in discipline and loyalty and reliability of Indian soldiers
also in doubt. INA hailed as heroes.
British post-war economy probs couldnt cope with any new repression exerted in India
Labour Party 1945, time ripe for change
Any political statement by now had to win consent of not just Congress, but also the Muslim League- now question
not of communal relationships in independent India but rather possible creation of separatist state (Gandhi didnt
want this)
Sikhs threatened by this, homeland of the Punjab seemed likely to be partitioned between two states. 1946-7
violence. Gandhi fasts. Students march- 5000 Muslims alongside 5000 Hindus- not tension everywhere
India seemingly crumbling, Britain want to opt out
The opposition that had schooled Indian leaders in the political skills crucial in operating a viable democracy. Free
and democratic (despite split and loss of Gandhis dream of unity- ultimately had to decide whether wanted unity
or independence)
Conclusion
Media.
Very charismatic and influential man but flaws to such leadership too much responsibility, miracle stuff so ppl
dont understand
Congress worked well but even this had its own problems- nothing runs smoothly
Imposs to have no violence
Did achieve some goals but success not as quickly as Gandhi and the population had hoped
Many improvements made though, even if not obvious eg changes to Congress played big role for future of Indian
politics
Good group of committed Congressmen
Did pretty well to harness the nation
Despite flaws, everyone makes mistakes
Comparative advancements being made compared to violence
First real indication of mass movement and people power on a grand scale, and the influence one man can have
If you want to know where the quotations came from or anything else, just email me (see list in handbook)