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As
soon as he got there he knew he was bankrupt. Why?
Carl Weismans
Introduction to RF & Wireless
Two Day Seminar
Module 1
Course Objectives
Explain
RF signal behavior
System hardware makeup
Wireless systems operation
Communicate
Using over 300 terms
Have Fun
Daily Schedule
8:30 am 10: 00 am
Fun
10:00 am 10:15 am
Break
10:15 am 11:45 am
Fun
Noon 1:00 pm
Lunch
1:00 pm 2:30 pm
Fun
2:30 pm 2:45 pm
Break
2:45 pm 4:15 pm
Fun
Course Agenda
Day One
Morning (Module 1)
Introduction to RF
Afternoon (Module 2)
RF hardware
Day Two
Morning (Module 3)
Older systems & mobile telephony
Afternoon (Module 4)
Newer systems & the future
Module 1 - Introduction To RF
1. The Basics
2. RF Behavior
3. Modulation
4. Noise
Module 1
1. The Basics
2. RF Behavior
3. Modulation
4. Noise
1. The Basics
Vocabulary
Transmitters & Receivers
Signals
1. The Basics
Vocabulary
Transmitters & Receivers
Signals
Vocabulary
Electronics Terms
Voltage: A potential between 2 points (Volts)
Current: A flow of electrons (Amps)
Power = Voltage x Current (Watts)
Energy = Power x Time (Watt-hours)
AC: Varies with time (e.g., wall outlet)
DC: Constant (e.g. flashlight battery)
The Basics - Vocabulary
Vocabulary
More Electronics Terms
Signal: Electrical energy made to vary in a
predetermined way
Device: An electronic gadget that is indivisible
Component: Same as a device
Circuit: A collection of interconnected devices
RF: Radio Frequency
Wireless: A marketing term
The Basics - Vocabulary
Vocabulary
Prefixes
pico:
nano:
micro:
milli:
Kilo:
Mega:
Giga:
trillionth
billionth
millionth
thousandth
thousand
million
billion
10-12
10-9
10-6
10-3
103
106
109
0.000000000001
0.000000001
0.000001
0.001
1000
1000000
1000000000
Mu Not Moo
1. The Basics
Vocabulary
1. The Basics
Vocabulary
Transmitters & Receivers
Signals
Signals
There Are Two Kinds Of Signals
Analog: Can take any value
Analog Signals
A Very Special Analog Signal
Sine wave:
Analog Signals
Properties Of A Sine Wave
Speed
Analog Signals
Properties Of A Sine Wave
Speed
Frequency
Analog Signals
Properties Of A Sine Wave
Speed
Frequency
(Hertz)
Analog Signals
Properties Of A Sine Wave
Speed
Amplitude
Frequency
(Hertz)
Analog Signals
Properties Of A Sine Wave
Speed
Amplitude
Frequency
(Hertz)
Wavelength
Analog Signals
Properties Of A Sine Wave
Phase
90
360
Amplitude
0
180
Frequency
(Hertz)
270
Wavelength
Speed
Analog Signals
A Special Relationship
Frequency x Wavelength = Constant
When you know one you know the other
The constant is usually the speed of light
Visual Depiction
High frequency =
Many waves
Occurring frequently
Close together
The Basics - Signals
Visual Depiction
Low frequency =
Few waves
Occurring infrequently
Far apart
The Basics - Signals
Analog Signals
What Makes Sine Waves Special?
Every analog signal is just a summation of
multiple sine waves
Analog Signals
Why Is All Of This Important?
1) Because everything in the wireless world is
frequency dependent
Components are specified over certain frequencies
Applications are specified over certain frequencies
Analog Signals
Frequencies
Of
Some
Applications
Frequency (Hertz)
60
2,000
530,000
Application
Electrical wall outlet
The human voice
AM radio
54,000,000
VHF television
88,000,000
FM radio
824,000,000
1,850,000,000
11,700,000,000
Cellular phones
PCS phones
DirectTV
Analog Signals
Wavelengths
Of
Some
Applications
Wavelength (meters)
5,000,000
152,500
566
Application
Electrical wall outlet
The human voice
AM radio
VHF television
FM radio
0.3
Cellular phones
0.1
PCS phones
0.02
DirectTV
Analog Signals
Frequency
Bands
Band
Frequency Range
L-Band
1 2 GHz
S-Band
2 4 GHz
C-Band
4 8 GHz
X-Band
8 12 GHz
K-Band
12 40 GHz
Analog Signals
Frequency
Ranges
Term
Frequency Range
RF Frequency
Microwave Frequency
Digital Signals
An Example Of A Digital Signal
Digital Signals
Properties Of A Digital Signal
Amplitude
(0 or 1)
Digital Signals
Properties Of A Digital Signal
Amplitude
(0 or 1)
Frequency
The Basics - Signals
Digital Signals
Properties Of A Digital Signal
Amplitude
(0 or 1)
Digital Signals
Properties Of A Digital Signal
Amplitude
(0 or 1)
Analog vs Digital
Analog Signals
Occur naturally
Represent information AND
Travel through the air as invisible waves
Digital Signals
Are man made
Represent information only
Sample Rate
Twice the highest frequency = 8000 samples/sec
Granularity
8 bits/sample
Data Rate
8 (bits/sample) X 8000 (samples/sec) = 64 Kbps
Analog vs Digital
Analog Signals
Advantages: Can travel wirelessly
Disadvantages: Susceptible to noise
Digital Signals
Advantages: Noise resistant, compression
Disadvantages: Expensive RF hardware
The Basics
The end
Module 1
1. The Basics
2. RF Behavior
3. Modulation
4. Noise
2. RF Behavior
Loss & Gain
Decibels
Bandwidth
RF in the Environment
Match
2. RF Behavior
Loss & Gain
Decibels
Bandwidth
RF in the Environment
Match
Energy Is Conserved
Devices
Two Types
Heat
Gain
Heat
Loss
Power Supply
Active
Passive
Gain
Amplifier
Impossible
Loss
Many
Many
2. RF Behavior
Loss & Gain
Decibels
Bandwidth
RF in the Environment
Match
Decibels
What's The Problem?
1000 Watts
RF Behavior - Decibels
0.000000000001 Watts
Decibels
Definition
Decibels = 10 x log10(Pout/Pin)
RF Behavior - Decibels
Decibels
The Basics
Measure a change (e.g. output vs input)
Bigger (i.e, gain), decibels are positive
Smaller (i.e., loss) , decibels are negative
Decibels are abbreviated "dB"
RF Behavior - Decibels
Decibels
The Only Math You'll Need To Know
+3dB means 2 times bigger
+10 dB means 10 times bigger
-3dB means 2 times smaller
-10 dB means 10 times smaller
Add and subtract decibels only
RF Behavior - Decibels
Decibel Conversion
Examples
Change
Factors
Decibels
4000
2 x 2 x 10 x 10 x 10
3+3+10+10+10=36 dB
-4000
-36 dB
5000
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 2
10+10+10+10-3=37 dB
8000
2 x 4000
36 dB + 3 dB = 39 dB
37.5 dB 37. 78 dB
6000
RF Behavior - Decibels
Summing Decibels
Recall From Before
RF Behavior - Decibels
Summing Decibels
Now With dB
10 dB
Gain
10 dB
Gain
Total gain = 20 dB
RF Behavior - Decibels
Summing Decibels
One More Example
RF Behavior - Decibels
dBm
What Is It?
A measure of power NOT change
In The RF World
The "standard" unit of power is 1 milliwatt
Definition
dBm = "dB above 1 milliwatt"
RF Behavior - Decibels
dBm
Example
Gain of device = 30 dB
"Change"
dBm Conversion
dBm
Recall From Before
0 dBm
19 dBm
dBm
Another Example
20 dBm
39 dBm
2. RF Behavior
Loss & Gain
Decibels
Bandwidth
RF in the Environment
Match
Bandwidth
What Is It?
A range of frequencies (in Hertz)
Defined by the highest & lowest frequency
Where Is It Used?
Components
Wireless applications
RF Behavior - Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Example 1
An amplifier provides 30 dB of gain from 75 MHz to
125 MHz. What is its bandwidth?
Highest frequency = 125 MHz
Lowest frequency = 75 MHz
Difference =
50 MHz = Bandwidth
RF Behavior - Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Example 2
Cellular telephony in the US operates between 824 MHz
and 894 MHz. What is the bandwidth?
Highest frequency = 894 MHz
Lowest frequency = 824 MHz
Difference =
70 MHz = Bandwidth
RF Behavior - Bandwidth
RF Behavior - Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Ways To Describe It
Narrowband: %BW < 50%
Wideband: %BW > 50%
Octave: Highest frequency = 2x lowest frequency
Decade: Highest frequency = 10x lowest frequency
RF Behavior - Bandwidth
2. RF Behavior
Loss & Gain
Decibels
Bandwidth
RF in the Environment
Match
RF In The Environment
Free Space Loss
Skin Effect
Absorption
Reflection
RF In The Environment
Free Space Loss
Skin Effect
Absorption
Reflection
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
-120 dB
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
-120 dB
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
RF In The Environment
Free Space Loss
Skin Effect
Absorption
Reflection
Skin Effect
What Is It?
When an RF signal is on a conductor, it resides
only on the surface
Signal on the surface
No signal inside
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
Skin Effect
What Is The Implication?
RF signals can't penetrate conductors (e.g. metal)
Metal can be used to control airborne RF waves
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
RF In The Environment
Free Space Loss
Skin Effect
Absorption
Reflection
Absorption
What Is It?
When RF waves travel through the air, some
things they encounter cause attenuation
Air
Rain
Foliage
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
Absorption
And
Absorbed energy gets converted to heat
Heat
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
Absorption
Look Familiar?
Heat
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
Absorption
What Else?
Also called atmospheric attenuation
Measured in dB
Heat
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
Atmospheric
Attenuation
Absorption
Recall From Before
Output Power
Free Space Loss
Absorption
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
RF In The Environment
Free Space Loss
Skin Effect
Absorption
Reflection
Reflection
What Is It?
When RF waves travel through the air, some
things they encounter cause the signal to be
reflected
Buildings
Mountains
Automobiles
Reflection
In Fact
Some materials reflect the RF completely
Metal
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
Reflection
What Does Than Mean?
Some materials absorb AND reflect RF waves
RF Behavior - RF In The
Environment
Heat
Incident wave
Transmitted wave
Reflected wave
Recap
Free space loss
Skin effect
Absorption
Reflection
2. RF Behavior
Loss & Gain
Decibels
Bandwidth
RF in the Environment
Match
Match
Impedance
Components have impedance
Conductors have impedance
Conductors connect components
RF Behavior - Match
Match
Impedance
Components & conductors should have the same
impedance
50 ohms
RF Behavior - Match
Match
Why Don't Things Match?
Different standards
50 ohms in the RF world
75 ohms in the video world
Impedance varies
Over frequency
From unit to unit
RF Behavior - Match
Mismatch
What Are The Consequences?
The RF signal gets reflected
The bigger the mismatch, the greater the reflection
RF Behavior - Match
Mismatch
Good match
Incident signal
Reflected signal
Poor match
Incident signal
Reflected signal
RF Behavior - Match
Match
How Is Match Measured?
Two ways
VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)
Return loss (RL)
RF Behavior - Match
VSWR
VSWR
Meaning
1.0:1
Perfect match
1.4:1
Excellent match
2.0:1
Good match
10:1
Poor match
:1
Special cases
RF Behavior - Match
2) Perfect short
Conductor/component short circuited
RF Behavior - Match
Return Loss
Meaning
"The loss that the return (reflected) signal
experiences"
Big RL = small reflected signal
Small RL = big reflected signal
Measured in dB
Just like insertion loss
RF Behavior - Match
Good
Bad
Return Loss
Good match
Incident signal
High RL
Reflected signal
Poor match
Incident signal
Low RL
Reflected signal
RF Behavior - Match
Return Loss
1.0:1
1.4:1
15.6 dB
2.0:1
9.5 dB
10:1
1.7 dB
:1
0 dB
RF Behavior - Match
Mismatch
How To Deal With Mismatch
If the mismatch is small
Do nothing
RF Behavior - Match
Impedance Matching
Impedance matching circuit
75 ohms
50 ohms
RF Behavior - Match
RF Behavior
The end
Module 1
1. The Basics
2. RF Behavior
3. Modulation
4. Noise
3. Modulation
How RF Carries Information
AM
FM
PM
QAM
3. Modulation
How RF Carries Information
AM
FM
PM
QAM
Modem
Modulation - How RF Carries
Information
Radio
Modulation - How RF Carries
Information
3. Modulation
How RF Carries Information
AM
FM
PM
QAM
Amplitude
Modulation - AM
AM
Example
Modulation - AM
BASK
Example
Modulation - AM
3. Modulation
How RF Carries Information
AM
FM
PM
QAM
Frequency
Modulation - FM
FM
Example
Modulation - FM
FSK
Example
Modulation - FM
3. Modulation
How RF Carries Information
AM
FM
PM
QAM
90
360
0
180
270
Phase Shift
What Is It?
Successive sine
waves starting at a
different point on
the sine wave
Measured with
respect to the
previous sine wave
Modulation - PM
90 Phase Shift
In Action
Phase shift:
90 Phase Shift
In Action
Phase shift:
90 Phase Shift
In Action
Phase shift:
90 Phase Shift
In Action
Phase shift:
90 Phase Shift
In Action
Phase shift:
90 Phase Shift
In Action
Phase shift:
90
Modulation - PM
Phase Shift
How Does It Represent Digital Info?
"0" = 0 phase shift
"1" = 180 phase shift
Phase shift:
Digital bit:
Phase Shift
How Does It Represent Digital Info?
"0" = 0 phase shift
"1" = 180 phase shift
Phase shift:
Digital bit:
180
BPSK
Example
Modulation - PM
Phase Shift
It Can Represent More Information
"00" = 0 shift
"01" = 90 shift
Phase shift:
Digital bit:
00
Phase Shift
It Can Represent More Information
"00" = 0 shift
"01" = 90 shift
Phase shift:
90
Digital bit:
01
Phase Shift
It Can Represent More Information
"00" = 0 shift
"01" = 90 shift
Phase shift:
Digital bit:
10
Phase Shift
It Can Represent More Information
"00" = 0 shift
"01" = 90 shift
Phase shift:
Digital bit:
11
QPSK
Example
Modulation - PM
QPSK
Example
Modulation - PM
QPSK
Example
Modulation - PM
QPSK
Example
Modulation - PM
QPSK
Example
Modulation - PM
3. Modulation
How RF Carries Information
AM
FM
PM
QAM
What Is It?
A combination of amplitude shift keying and
phase shift keying
For digital information signals only
QAM - 8
How Does It Represent Digital Info?
Amplitude shift keying (BASK)
"0" = low
"1" = high
"00" = 0
"01" = 90
"10" = 180
"11" = 270
Modulation - QAM
QAM - 8
Example
Modulation - QAM
QAM - 8
Example
Modulation - QAM
QAM - 8
Example
Modulation - QAM
Spectral Efficiency
Bits/Second/Hertz
BPSK: 1 bps/Hz
QPSK: 2 bps/Hz
QAM: 3 bps/Hz
Recap
Modulation
Analog
Digital
AM
AM
BASK
FM
FM
FSK
PM
N/A
BPSK
QPSK
QAM
N/A
BASK+
QPSK
Modulation
The end
Module 1
1. The Basics
2. RF Behavior
3. Modulation
4. Noise
4. Noise
What Is It?
Link Budget
Noise Effects
4. Noise
What Is It?
Link Budget
Noise Effects
Noise
What Is It?
Signal disturbance
Unwanted signal(s), also called interference
Noise - What is it
Noise
Types
AM: Unwanted changes to the amplitude
Predominantly environment
Noise - What is it
Noise
A Function Of Bandwidth & Temperature
Noise density
"Noise floor
Thermal noise
-120 dBm
Noise - What is it
4. Noise
What Is It?
Link Budget
Noise Effects
Receiver sensitivity
Link Budget
Power out
40 dBm
120 dB
-80 dBm
Absorption
10 dB
S/N
Noise floor
-90 dBm
30 dB
-120 dBm
Link Budget
Noise Spectrum
Signal Spectrum
Shannons Theorem
Maximum Data Rate
A function of bandwidth
A function of S/N ratio
4. Noise
What Is It?
Link Budget
Noise Effects
Noise Effects
Analog AM
No noise
Noise Effects
Analog AM
Noise
Noise Effects
Digital AM
No noise
Noise Effects
Digital AM
Noise
Noise Effects
Phase Modulation
Unwanted phase shift (e.g., 45)
BPSK
0
1
QPSK
0
45
180
00
01
0
45
90
Noise
The end
Module 1 - Introduction To RF
The end