LEARNING

Learning can be defined as the relatively

permanent change in behavior brought
about as a result of experience or practice.

Nature of learning

Learning involves change.

The change must be relatively permanent.
Learning involves change in behaviour.
The change in behaviour should occur as a result
of experience, practice or training
The training or experience should be reinforced
for learning to take place
There is no age for learning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be

discovered and studied within the behaviorist tradition (hence
the name classical).
Classical conditioning can be defined as a process in which a
formerly neutral stimulus when paired with an unconditioned
stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that illicit a
conditioned response. (Luthans)
The major theorist in the development of classical conditioning is
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist trained in biology and
medicine (as was his German contemporary, Sigmund Freud).

The specific model for classical conditioning is:

A stimulus will naturally (without learning) elicit

or bring about a reflexive response

Unconditioned
Stimulus
(US)
Unconditioned Response (UR)

elicits

>

Neutral Stimulus (NS) --- does not elicit the

response of interest

This stimulus (sometimes called an orienting

stimulus as it elicits an orienting response) is a
neutral stimulus since it does not elicit the
Unconditioned (or reflexive) Response.

The Neutral Stimulus (NS) is transformed

into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS).
That is, when the CS is presented by itself,
it elicits or causes the CR (which is the
same involuntary response as the UR.

OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY

Operant conditioning is the study of the
impact of consequences on behavior.
B.F. Skinner is credited with the origin of
Operant Conditioning.

With operant conditioning we are dealing

with voluntary behaviors.
Operant conditioning deals with Response
Stimulus connection.
STIMULUS
RESPONSE
FUTURE RESPONSE

CONSEQUENCE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL & OPERANT

CONDITIONING

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Responses are elicited from a

person

Responses are emitted from a

person

Responses are fixed to

stimulus (no choice)

Responses are variable in

types and degree (choice)

CS is stimulus such as a
sound , an object, a person,
etc.

CS is situation such as an
office, a social setting, a
specific set of circumstances

Reinforcement is not received

by choice

Person is instrumental in
securing reinforcement by
operating on the environment

2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

210

Shaping Behavior: A Managerial Tool

Reinforcement strengthens desirable behaviour by either
bestowing positive consequences or withholding negative
consequences and increasing the likelihood that the desirable
behaviour will be repeated.

Key Concepts
Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
Some rewards are more effective than others.

The timing of reinforcement affects learning

speed and permanence.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY: Principles

Behavior that is positively reinforced will recur;
intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective
Information should be presented in small
amounts so that responses can be reinforced
("shaping")
Reinforcements will generalize across similar
stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing
secondary conditioning.

2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

212

Four Methods of Shaping Behavior

1. Positive reinforcement: This strengthens and increases

behaviour by the presentation of desirable consequences.
Following a response with something pleasant, e.g., boss
praises an employee for job well done.
2. Negative reinforcement (Avoidance): Following a
response by the termination or withdrawal of something
unpleasant, e.g., A manager may habitually criticise
individuals who dress casually. To avoid criticism, the
employees may dress to suit the managers taste. Here the
employees are engaging in desirable behaviour to avoid an
unpleasant consequence.

Four Methods of Shaping Behavior, Contd.,

3. Punishment: Causing unpleasant condition in an attempt
to eliminate an undesirable behavior, e.g., giving an
employee a two-day suspension from work without pay for
showing up drunk is an example of punishment.
4. Extinction: Eliminating any reinforcement that is
maintaining a behavior. Extinction decreases the frequency
of undesirable behaviour. E.g., College instructors who wish
to discourage students from asking questions in class can
eliminate this behavior in their students by ignoring those
who raise their hands to ask questions.

Behavior Modification

OB Mod is a programme where managers identify

performance-related employee behaviours and then
implement an intervention strategy to strengthen
desirable
behaviour
and
weaken
undesirable
behaviours. (Stephen P. Robbins)

STEPS OF OB MOD

Identification of critical behaviour

Measurement of behaviour
Functional analysis of behaviour
Development of a change strategy
Evaluation for performance improvement

2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

216

OB MOD Organizational Applications

Well Pay
Reduce absenteeism by rewarding attendance.

Employee Discipline
The use of punishment can be counter-productive.

Developing Training Programs

OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.

Self-management
Reduces the need for external management control.