CHAPTER 5 :

CHEMICALS FOR
CONSUMERS

SOAPS
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts
of long-chain fatty acids
General Formula:

R-COO- Na+ or

R-COO- K+

Potassium soap are softer, milder than sodium soap and are
usually used for bathing
Example:

CH3(CH2)14COO- Na+

Palmitic Acid + NaOH Sodium Palmitate + H2O

PREPARATION OF SOAP
Soap is made through heating oils / fats (Ester) with
an alkali, NaOH
SAPONIFICATION PROCESS

OVERALL SAPONIFICATION PROCESS

Oils or fats + Concentrated
[ESTER]

Alkali

Glycerol

Soap
[SALT]

O=
R-C-O-CH2
O=

HO CH2

R-C-O-CH
O=
R-C-O-CH2

+ 3NaOH

HO CH
HO CH2

+ RCOONa + RCOONa + RCOONa

1. HYDROLYSED OF OILS /ESTERS

O=
R-C-O-CH2
O=
R-C-O-CH

HO CH2

+ 3H2O

HO CH

+ RCOOH + RCOOH + RCOOH

O=

HO CH2

R-C-O-CH2

Oils or fats

Glycerol

fatty acid

2. NEUTRALIZATION OF FATTY ACIDS

RCOOH + RCOOH + RCOOH + 3NaOH

Fatty acids

RCOONa + RCOONa + RCOONa + 3H2O

Soap

Preparation
of Soap

PREPARATION OF SOAP IN LAB

1. Measure 5cm3 of coconut oil and pour it into a beaker.
2. Add 30 cm3 of 5 mol dm -3 NaOH to the coconut oil.
3. Boil the mixture for about 10 minutes while stirring with a glass
rod.
4. Add 100 cm3 of distilled water and 3 spatulas of NaCl. Stir the
mixture.
5. Continue boiling for about 5 minutes.
6. Filter the mixture. Wash the residue with a little distilled water.
7. Dry the residue by pressing it gently between a few pieces of
filter paper.

TEST THE SOAP

1. Shake a little bit of the residue with about 1 cm3 of distilled
water in a test tube
2. Record your observations.

DETERGENT
Detergent is a synthetic cleansing agent made from
hydrocarbon
Raw materials obtained from petroleum
PREPARATION

SULPHONATION PROCESS
Two common detergents are
: 1. Alkyl sulphate

CH3(CH2)nCH2

2. Alkylbenzene sulphonate

CH3(CH2)nCH2

Na

Na

PREPARATION OF DETERGENT
Step I
Obtain a long chain hydrocarbon from petroleum
fractions
Step II
Reacts long chain alcohol with concentrated sulphuric
acid to form lauryl hydrogen acid
Step III
Neutralise lauryl hydrogen acid with sodium hydroxide
solution and produce sodium lauryl sulphate (detergent)

CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAP AND DETERGENT

SOAP

DETERGENT

1. Dirty cloth

2. Soap or detergent dissolves in

water
a. Reduce the surface
tension of water
b. Wetting the cloth
3. The hydrophobic part of
the anion dissolved in
grease and the hydrophilic
part dissolved in water

4. Grease loosened and lifted off the

surface. Heat, rubbing and
scrubbing can help this process.
5. The grease is lifted off the surface
and suspended in water.
6. The grease is dispersed into
smaller drops.

7. Rinsing away
the dirty water
removes the
grease
droplet

CLEAN CLOTH

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CLEANSING ACTION

The effectiveness of soap is reduced when used in
Hard Water
water that contains Ca2+
and Mg2+ ions.

Soap anions form salts with Ca2+ and Mg2+.

These salts is insoluble salt - scum

Soap cannot lather well in hard water but detergent

anions form soluble salts
Therefore,detergent of cleaning power is not affected
by hard water.

SOAP :
Hard water contains of Ca2+ and Mg2+ions
These ions react with the soap to form an insoluble
precipitate known as SCUM

Formation of soap scum reduces the amount of soap

available for cleaning
Therefore, soaps are only suitable for use in soft water.
The cleansing effectiveness is affected by hard water.

DETERGENT:
1. Detergent do not form scum with hard water.
2. Detergent form a soluble substances with calcium
or magnesium ions.

3. Detergent can still perform its cleansing action in

hard water
4. Detergent is more effective than soap in hard water

ADDITIVES IN DETERGENT

FOOD ADDITIVES

SALT

SUGAR

HOW THEY WORK :

Sugar or salt draws the water
out of the cell of microorganisms
and retards the growth of
microorganisms

VINEGAR

HOW THEY WORK :

Vinegar provides an
acidic condition that
inhibits the growth of
microorganisms

Sodium nitrite
or sodium
nitrate

Benzoic acid
or sodium
benzoate

Sulphur
dioxide

HOW THEY WORK :

These preservatives slow down the growth of
microorganisms

Preservatives

Functions

Salt

Sugar

Draws the water out of the

cells of microorganisms.
Retards the growth of
microorganisms.

Example
Salted
vegetables

Increase the risk

of cardiovascular
diseases

Fruit jam

Tooth decay,
diabetes and
obesity

Vinegar

Inhibits the growth of

microorganisms.

Pickled
cucumber

Sodium nitrite /
sodium nitrate

Slows down the growth of

microorganisms. Stabilise
red colour in meats.

Sausage

Benzoic acid /
sodium benzoate
Sulphur dioxide

Side effect

Carcinogenic

Tomato sauce
Slows down the growth of
microorganisms.

Grape juice

Asthma and
allergies

B. Antioxidant
1. Food containing fats and oils can turn rancid, fats and oils
are oxidised to unpleasant-smelling acids on exposure to
the air.
2.
Function:
Prevent oxidation (causes rancid fats and brown fruits)

Antioxidant

Functions

Example

Side effect

Vitamin E

Prevent oils from turns

rancid

Palm oil &

sunflower oil

No

Vitamin C

Preserve the colour of

fruit juice and the
formation of
nitrosamines

Fruit juice &

cured meat

No

Sodium citrate

Stop rancidity in fats

Ice-cream

Margarine &
cereal

Carcinogenic

BHA (Butylated Retard rancidity in fats,

hydroxyanisole) oils and oil-containing
BHT (Butylated
foods
hydroxytoluene)

BHA/BHT
in
Margarine

HOW THEY
WORK :
To retard rancidity
in oils

VITAMIN C
in Fruit
Juice

HOW THEY
WORK :
To preserve the
colour of fruit juice

Sodium
Citrate in
Cooked
cured
Meat

HOW THEY
WORK :
To stop fats from
turning rancid

C. Flavouring
Functions:

1. improve the taste

2. improve the smell
3. restore taste loss due to food process
Flavouring
Functions
MSG
Bring out the flavor
(monosodium
glutamate)
Aspartame Sweeten food (about
(non-sugar 180 200 times than
sweetener)
sugar)

Synthetic
essences
(esters)

Example
Side effect
Salad dressing & Headache, thirsty,
canned soup
nausea & chest
pain.
Soft drinks & diet Increase the risk
drinks
of leukemia,
cancer and
neurological
problems
Produce artificial
Methyl butanoate
flavours = natural
(apple flavour) &
flavour. Cheaper to
octyl ethanoate
use than the real fruits (orange flavour)

D. Stabilisers
Functions:
prevent an emulsion from separating out
Stabilisers
Monoglyceride
s of fatty acids

Functions
Mix oil and water

Example
Ice-cream, chewing gum,
beverages, whipped topping
and margarine
Acacia gum
Mix two liquids that do not mix
Marshmallow, gumdrop,
together. Forms an emulsion. edible glitter, carbonated drink
syrup & gummy candies
Lecithin
Reduces viscosity. Replaces Margarine, dough, candy bar
more expensive ingredients.
& cocoa powder
Controls sugar crystallisation and
the flow properties of chocolate.
Helps in the homogeneous
mixing of ingredients. Uses as a
coating.
Gelatin
Mixture of peptides and proteins Fruit jam, jelly babies, shells
of collagen extracted from the of pharmaceutical capsules,
boiled bones, connective tissues,
margarine & yogurt
organs and some intestines of

Thickeners
Functions:
thicken food
give the food dense, smooth and uniform texture
Thickeners
Gelatin

Pectin
Starch

Functions

Example

Mixture of peptides and Fruit jam, jelly babies,

proteins of collagen shells of pharmaceutical
extracted from the boiled capsules, margarine &
bones, connective
yogurt
tissues, organs and
some intestines of
animals
Dietary fiber
Fruit jam
Thicken food
Soup, custard, pudding,
noodles and pasta

Side
effect
-

Dyes / Colouring
Dyes

(colouring agents) - chemicals added to

foods to give them colour to improve their
appearance.
Some foods are naturally coloured, but lost during
food processing. The foods industry uses
synthetic food colours to :
a)
Restore the colour of food lost
b)
Enhance natural colours,
c)
Give colour to foods that do not have
colour.

EXAMPLE OF DYES
Azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these
compounds are organic compounds.
The Brilliant blue - triphenyl compound.
Tartrazine and sunset yellow - azo compounds.
Azo compounds - yellow , red, brown, black in
colour.
Triphenyl compounds green, blue or purple
in colour.

MODERN MEDICINE

1. Stimulants
Increase the level of activity, arousal and alertness of the mind
Example
Amphetamine , dextroampheteamine and methylphenidate
is prescribed to relieve mild depression and fatigue

2. Antidepressants
Increase the activity of neutrotransmitter (chemicals that pass
signal between nerve cells) in the brain

Example
tranquilisers ,barbiturate or fluoxetine
Prescribe to moderately depressed patients who feel sad,
hopeless and may having crying spells

3. Antipsychotic drugs :
Reduce the activity of neurotransmitter in the

Example :
Clozapine is prescribe to schizophrenia patients who tend to
hear non existent voices or believes other people are plotting to
harm them

PROPER MANAGEMENT

DETERGENT
1. Wear gloves when working with strong detergent to
protect your hands
2. Use biodegradable detergent
3. Use appropriate amounts of detergent

FOOD ADDITIVES
1. Be a wise consumer. Read the label to know what you
are eating
2. Avoid consuming too much salt and sugar
3. Read up to know about food additives
4. Avoid foodstuff with additives which you are sensitive to
5. Avoid rewarding children with junk food

MEDICINES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Do not store up medicines

No self medication
Do not take medicine prescribed for someone else
check for expiry date
Follow your doctor prescription
Take the medicine after meals
Take the medicine with correct dose

:SODIUM ALKYL SULPHATE

PREPARATION

1. FORMATION OF AN ORGANIC ACID

CH3(CH2)nCH2OH +
Long Chain
Alcohol

CH3(CH2)nCH2

+ Concentrated
Sulphuric acid

Alkyl Sulphonic
Acid

+ H2O
+ Water

2. NEUTRALISATION
CH3(CH2)nCH2

Alkyl Sulphonic
Acid

+ NaOH CH3(CH2)nCH2

+ NaOH

Sodium Alkyl +
Sulphate

Na + H2O

Water

:SODIUM ALKYLBENZENE SULPHATE

PREPARATION

1. FORMATION OF AN ORGANIC ACID

CH3(CH2)nCH=CH2 +

CH3(CH2)nCH(CH3)

Long Chain Alkene + Benzene

CH3(CH2)nCH2
Alkyl benzene

Alkyl benzene

CH3(CH2)nCH2

+ concentrated
H2SO4

Alkyl benzene Sulphonic

Acid

+ H2O
+ Water

2. NEUTRALISATION
CH3(CH2)nCH2

Alkyl Sulphonic
Acid

NaOH

CH3(CH2)nCH2

Na + H2O

+ NaOH
Sodium
+
Water
Alkylbenzene Sulphonate